International Labour Organisation Convention No. 138, Article 7 and its Implementation in South African Municipal Laws: Suggested Policy Changes

Rufaro Audrey Mavunga

doi:10.25159/2663-6549/11505

Authors

Rufaro Audrey Mavunga Independent Institute of Education

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6549/11505

Keywords:

child labour, light work, permissible forms of child labour, household chores, minimum age convention

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to examine the implementation of Article 7 of Convention No. 138 in the municipal laws of South Africa. The regulation of light work in South Africa is complex because there is no legislation that defines or even refers to light work by children between the ages of 12 and 15. Children below the age of 15 years can only undertake work for the purposes of fundraising and charity and cannot be employed for remuneration. The relevant legislation does not provide children with adequate opportunities to undertake work that could be beneficial for children.

References

Admassie, Assefa. 2002 “Explaining the High Incidence of Child Labour in Sub–Saharan Africa.” African Development Review: 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.00054. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.00054

Anker, Richard. 2000. “The Economics of Child Labour: A Framework for Measurement.” International Labour Review: 257–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1564-913X.2000.tb00204.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1564-913X.2000.tb00204.x

Aufseeser, Dena, and Bourdillon, Michael, and Carothers, Richard, and Lecoufle, Olivia. 2017 Children’s Work and Children’s Well-being: Implications for Policy. Development Policy Review, 241–244. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12215. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12215

Bekink Bernard, and Danie Brand. 2000. “Constitutional Protection of Children.” In Introduction to Child Law in South Africa, edited by C. Davel. Cape Town: Juta Publishers.

Binford, Warren. 2015–2016. “The Constitutionalization of Children’s Rights in South Africa (2015–2016).” New York Law School Review 60: 333–363.

Bjørne, Grimsrud. 2003. “Millennium Development Goals and Child Labour.” Working Paper Understanding Children’s Work (UCW) Project University of Rome

Bourdillon, Michael. 2009. “Children’s Work in Southern Africa.” Werkwinkel, 103–122.

Bourdillon, Michael, and Myers White. 2022. “Illusions in the Protection of Working Children.” In International Child Protection. Palgrave Studies on Children and Development, edited by N. Howard, and S. Okyere. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78763-9_4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78763-9_4

Bourdillon, Michael, Ben White, and Myers White. 2009. “Re-Assessing Minimum-age Standards for Children’s Work.” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policies: 106–117. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443330910947480. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/01443330910947480

Bonnet, Michel. 1993. “Child Labour in Africa.” International Labour Review, 371–389.

Boyden, J. 1994. “The Relationship between Education and Child Work.” Innocenti Occasional Papers, Florence Italy.

Churr, C. 2015. “Realisation of a Child’s Rights to a Basic Education in the South African School System: Some Lessons from Germany.” PELJ: 2405–2453.

Dall, F. 1995. “Children’s Rights to Education: Reaching the Unreached.” In Implementing the Convention on the Rights of the Child: Resource Mobilization in Low -income Countries, edited by J. Himes. The Hague: Martinus Nijoff Publishers, 163–165.

Dawes, A., J. Streak, S. Levine, and D. Ewing. 2012. “Child Agricultural Work in South Africa: A Contested Space,” edited by O. Development, M. Bourdillon, and J. Boyden, 283–97. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230362796_17

Demir, Engin, Erol Demir, and Sevil Uygur. 2006. “The Relationship between Work, School Performance and School Attendance of Primary School Children in Turkey.” Cennet Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Geneva, 13–15 September 2006.

Hobbs, Sandy, Stack Niamh, Jim McKechnie, and Lynn Smillie. 2007. “Talking About Work: School Students’ Views on their Paid Employment.” Children and Society: 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.2006.00030.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.2006.00030.x

Hilson, Gavin. 2010. “Child Labour in the Artisanal Mining Communities: Experiences from Northern Ghana.” Wiley Journal of Community Practice: Organizing, Planning, Development and Change:.445–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01646.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01646.x

International Labour Organisation. 2004. “Child Labour: A Textbook for University Students.” Geneva International Labour Office.

International Labour Organisation. 2020. “Covid-19 Impact on Child Labour and Forced Labour: The Response of the IPEC+ Flagship Programme” https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/how-the-ilo-works/flagships/ipec-plus/WCMS_745287/lang--en/index.htm.

Leonard, M. 2003. “Children's Attitudes to Parents’, Teachers' and Employers' Perspectives of Term-time Work.” Children and Society. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/chi.760

Mavunga, Rufaro. 2013. “A Critical Assessment of the Minimum Age Convention 138 of 1973 and the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 182 of 1999.” PELJ: 123–159. https://doi.org/10.4314/pelj.v16i5.3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/pelj.v16i5.3

Mavunga, Rufaro. 2014. “The Historical Development of the Light work Provision of Convention 138.” Obiter 3: 539–569.

Mturi, Akim. 2012. “Child-headed Households in South Africa: What We Know and What We Don’t.” Development Southern Africa: 506–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2012.706043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2012.706043

Mudzingiri, Calvin, Emmanuel Moyana, and Fungai Mbengo. 2016. “Caregivers’ Perspective of the Child Support Grant in South Africa: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Psychology in Africa: 176–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2016.1163911. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2016.1163911

Mpedi, Letlhokwa L. 2008. “Pertinent Social Security Issues in South Africa.” Western Cape Community Law Centre.

Nkurunziza, Joseph, Annelet Broekhuis, and Pieter Hooimeijer. 2012. “Free Education in Rwanda: Just One Step towards Reducing Gender and Sibling Inequalities.” Education Research International. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/396019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/396019

Orkin, Kate. 2012. “Are Work and Schooling Complementary or Competitive for Children in Rural Ethiopia? A Mixed-methods.” Young Lives, Oxford Department of International Development (ODID), University of Oxford, Working Paper no. 77.

Patel, Leila, Tessa Hochfield, and Jacqueline Moodley. 2013. “Gender and Child Sensitive Social Protection in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa: 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2012.755872. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2012.755872

Reynolds, Jennifer, and Marjorie Orellana. 2009. “New Immigrant Youth Interpreting in White Public Space.” American Anthropologist: 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01114.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01114.x

Robson, Elsbeth. 2004. “Hidden Child Workers: Young Carers in Zimbabwe.” Antipode: 227–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2004.00404.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2004.00404.x

Robinson, J. A. 2003. “Children’s Rights in the South African Constitution.” PELJ: 1–57.

Siddiqi, Faraaz, and Harry Patrinos. 1995. “Child Labour: Issues and Causes.” Human Capital Development and Operations Policy Working Papers, 1–17.

Sloth-Nielsen, Julia, 1996 “Chicken Soup or Chainsaws: Some Implications of the Constitutionalisation of Children’s Rights in South Africa.” Acta Juridica: 323–344. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718189620493402. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/15718189620493402

Sloth-Nielsen, Julia, and Benyam Mezmur. 2008. “A Dutiful Child: The Implications of Article 31 of the African Charter.” Journal of African Law. 52 (2): 159–189. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021855308000089. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021855308000089

Streak. J., A. Dawes, D. Ewing, S. Levine, S. Rama, and L. Alexander. 2007. “Children Working in the Commercial and Subsistence Agriculture in South Africa: A Child Labour-related Rapid Assessment Study.” Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council in Association with the Department of Labour. Accessed June 2, 2023. www.hsrc.ac.za/en/research-data/ktree-doc/1364.

Strode Ann, Catherine Slack, and Zaynab Essack. 2010. “Child Consent in South African Law: Implications for Researchers, Service Providers and Policy-makers.” South African Medical Journal: 247–249. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.3609. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.3609

Swepston, Lee. 1982. “Child Labour: Its Regulation by the ILO Standards and National Legislation.” International Labour Review 121 (5): 582.

Tsegaye, Shimelis. 2009. “Child Poverty in Africa: An Overview.” Addis Ababa, African Child Policy Forum.

White, Ben. 1994. “Children, Work and ‘Child Labour’: Changing Responses to the Employment of Children.” Development and Change: 849–878. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.1994.tb00538.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.1994.tb00538.x

Legislation

Children’s Act No. 38 of 2005.

Constitution of South Africa Act No.108 of 1996.

Basic Conditions of Employment Act 1997 (BCEA), Sectoral Determination No. 13: Farm Worker Sector of 2002.

BCEA, Sectoral Determination No. 6: Private Security Sector of 2001.

BCEA, Sectoral Determination No. 9: Wholesale and Resale Sector of 2016.

BCEA, Sectoral Determination No. 11: Taxi Sector of 2005.

BCEA, Sectoral Determination No. 7: Domestic Workers of 2002.

Guidelines for Acceptable Household Chores of 2010.

Labour Code of 2004 as amended in 2013 (Kyrgyzstan).

Labour Code of 1992 as amended in 2000 (Lesotho).

Regulations on Hazardous Work by Children No. 7 of 2010.

Basic Conditions of Employment Act No. 75 of 1997. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/cen-v075n016.p063

Fund Raising Act No. 107 of 1978.

International Conventions

African Charter on the Rights of the Child of 1999, Children’s Charter.

ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention No.182 of 1999.

ILO Minimum Age Convention No.138 of 1973.

ILO Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Convention No. 33 of 1932.

ILO Minimum Age Recommendation No. 146 of 1999.

ILO Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Recommendation No. 41 of 1932.

Caselaw

Madzodzo and Others v Minister of Education and Others 2014 (3) SA 441.

Websites

Atika School. 2016. “Traditional African Attitude Towards Work.” Accessed 15/6/2022. https://www.atikaschool.org/kcsecrenotes/traditional-african-attitude-towards-work.

Bourdillon, Michael. 2016. “Child Labour and Children’s Lives.” Presentation to the workshop on exploring Childhood Studies at the Centre for the Study of Childhood and Youth at the University of Sheffield. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295079402_Child_labour_and_children's_lives/link/56c72d7308ae03b93ddff560/download.

Business Tech. 2021. “Economic Impact of Riots and Looting in South Africa and Wider Emerging Problems,” 15 July 2021. Accessed 14/06/2022. https://businesstech.co.za/news/government/506136/economic-impact-of-riots-and-looting-in-south-africa- and-wider-emerging-problems/.

Bureau of International Labor Affairs. 2015. “Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Georgia 2015.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/georgia.

Coca-Cola Company. 2016. “Review of the Child Labour, Forced Labour and Land Rights in the South African Sugarcane Supply Chain Final.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.coca-colacompany.com/content/dam/journey/us/en/policies/pdf/human-workplace- rights/addressing-global-issues/coca-cola-company-south-africa-sugar-studypdf.

De Hoop, Jacobus, Furio, Camillo Rosati. 2013. “Cash Transfers and Child Labour.” Understanding Children’s Work Programme, Working Paper. Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/80689/1/756001382.pdf.

Department of Labour. 2010. “Child Labour and Other Related Activities in South Africa: An Analysis of the Study of Activities of Young Persons” (Pretoria, 2010), 23. Accessed 15/06/2022. http://advocacyaid.com/images/stories/rrdownloads/ANALYSIS_SAYP.pdf.

Department of Labour. 2015. “National Day against Child Labour.” Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.labour.gov.za/DOL/downloads/documents/useful-documents/basic-conditions-of-employment/ childday2015.pdf.

Hope Worldwide South Africa. 2022. “Supporting Child Headed Households in South Africa.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://hopeworldwidesa.org/supporting-child-headed-households-in-south-africa/.

ILO. 2004. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request South Africa (published 92nd ILC session).

ILO. 2006. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request South Africa (published 95th ILC session).

ILO. 2008. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request South Africa (published 97th ILC session).

ILO. 2009. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (98th session of ILC). See the General Report, 170–175. Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/P/09661/.

ILO. 2012. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Direct Request South Africa (published 101st ILC session).

ILO. 2013. “Marking Progress against Child Labour: Global Estimates and Trends 2000–2012” (Geneva, International Labour Office). Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_221513/lang-en/index.htm.

ILO. 2014. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations General Observation Kenya (published at the 103rd ILC session). Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3142564.

ILO. 2016. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations General Observation Kyrgyzstan (published at the 105th ILC session). Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p= 1000:13100:0:NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3251589.

ILO. “What is Child Labour.” Accessed 09/30/2022. https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang-en/index.htm#:~:text=The%20term%20%E2%80%9Cchild%20labour%E2%80%9D%20is,harmful%20to%20children%3B%20and%2For.

ILO/IPEC-SIMPOC. “Explaining the Demand and Supply of Child Labour: A Review of the Underlying Theories” (Geneva, International Labour Office, 2007), 20. Accessed 14/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=7870.

International Labour Office. 2014. “Child Labour Data Country Brief for Malawi.” Accessed 15/06/2022. www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=7802 Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations for Pakistan (103rd ILC session) Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3112766:NO.

International Labour Organisation. “Covid-19 Impact on Child Labour and Forced Labour: The Response of the IPEC+ Flagship Programme,” 4. Accessed 13/06/2022. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/-ed_norm/-ipec/documents/publication/wcms_745287.pdf.

International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour. “What It Is and What It Does.” Accessed 06/15/2022. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/-arabstates/-robeirut/documents/genericdocument/wcms_210580.pdf.

IPEC. 2022. “Child Labour: The Role of Labour Inspection: A Resource Booklet for Labour Inspectors, other Enforcement Agencies and Key ILO Partners,” 35. Accessed 15/06/2022. file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Resource%20booklet%20for%20LI.pdf, https://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/P/09661/.

Observation (CEACR) 2016. Adopted 2015, published 105th ILC session (2016) Mongolia. Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3255384:NO.

Save the Children UK. 2004. “Planning Working Children’s Education A Guide for Education Sector Planners.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/PlanWkgChildRights.pdf.

South Africa: see ILO Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations Direct Request (101st ILC session 2012). Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::::P13100_COMMENT_ID:2699939.

South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC) in collaboration with the United Nations Children’s Fund (Unicef). “Poverty Traps and Social Exclusion Among Children in South Africa” (Pretoria, 2014), 66–70. Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.sahrc.org.za/home/21/files/Poverty%20Traps%20Report.pdf.

Statistics South Africa. 2010. “Survey of Activities of Young People.” http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0212/P02122010.pdf.

Statistics South Africa. 2011. “Labour Market Dynamics in South Africa 2011.” Accessed June 15, 2022. https://www.datafirst.uct.ac.za/dataportal/index.php/catalog/246/related-materialstatistics.

Statistics South Africa. 2019. “Survey of Activities of Young People.” http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0212/P02122019.pdf.

Statistics South Africa. 2020. “Business Impact Survey of the Covid-19 Pandemic in South Africa,” April 2020, 5. Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-00-80-01/Report-00-80-01April2020.pdf.

Steinhofer, Tanya. 2019. “Redwood Grove Management Wealth Website. Why Kids Should Work.” Accessed 15/6/2022. https://redwoodgrovewm.com/why-kids-should-work/.

Terina, Allen. 2020. “3 Bitter Truths About Coronavirus Job Losses and The Economy,” May 10, 2020. Accessed 14/06/2022. https://www.forbes.com/sites/terinaallen/2020/05/10/3-bitter-truths-about-the-coronavirus-job-losses-and-the- economy/?sh=1d72199267f9.

The Conversation. 2018. “Why School Kids Need more Exposure to the World of Work.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://theconversation.com/why-school-kids-need-more-exposure-to-the-world-of-work-100590.

UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. 2013. “State Obligations Regarding the Impact of the Business Sector on Children’s Rights General Comment No. 16,” adopted at the 62nd Session. Accessed 15/06/2022. http://www.refworld.org/docid/51ef9cd24.html.

Unicef. 2021a. “Children’s Lives and Rights at Risk due to KwaZulu-Natal Floods.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/press-releases/childrens-lives-and-rights-risk-due-kwazulu-natal-floods.

Unicef. 2021b. “Child Labour Rises to 160 million: First Increase in two Decades.” Accessed 14/06/2022. https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/child- labour-rises-160-million-first-increase-two-decades.

United Kingdom Government Child Employment. Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.gov.uk/child-employment. Anglo Info Germany Understand the laws affecting teenagers working in Germany, https://www.angloinfo.com/how-to/germany/family/students-teenagers/youth-employment.

United Nations Stats Committee for the Coordination of Statistical Activities. 2020. “How Covid-19 is Changing the World: A Statistical Perspective,” 20. Accessed 15/06/2022. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ccsa/documents/covid19-report-ccsa.pdf.

World Vision. 2021. “Global Poverty: Facts, FAQs, and how to Help.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://www.worldvision.org/sponsorship-news-stories/global-poverty-facts.

World Bank Blogs. “Pandemic, Prices, and Poverty.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/pandemic-prices-and-Poverty.

Yisak, Tafere, and Alula Pankhurst. 2015. “Can Children in Ethiopian Communities Combine Schooling with Work? Young Lives and International Study of Childhood Poverty.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a0896aed915d622c0001ef/YL-WP141_Combining-schooling-and-work-in-Ethiopia.pdf.

Youth Law Australia. “When can I Start Working?” Accessed 14/06/2022. https://yla.org.au/act/topics/employment/when-can-i-start-working/.

Your Europa. “Teenage Workers.” Accessed 15/06/2022. https://europa.eu/youreurope/business/human-resources/employment-contracts/teenage-workers/index_en.htm.