Learner and Parent Perceptions of Visible Rewards at two South African High Schools: An Inclusive Education Perspective
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6549/9089Keywords:
inclusive education, visible rewards, participationAbstract
The use of visible rewards presented at award ceremonies for academic achievement is a common practice in many South African schools. Although rewards are unique to each school, the use of badges, trophies, certificates, honour board listings and differentiated school uniforms are commonly accepted ways in which learners are rewarded for their academic achievements. Using a survey of 104 learner responses and 17 parent responses, this article reports on the quantitative data from the author’s mixed methods doctoral study. Experiences of academic rewards at two Gauteng high schools from the perspective of grade 11 learners and their parents are presented here. A framework, including Social Interdependence Theory (Johnson and Johnson 2009) and the Participation Framework (Florian, Black-Hawkins, and Rouse 2017) was used to interpret the responses, revealing layers of meaning that indicated the problematic nature of rewarding learners visibly and publicly within an inclusive education system. The survey data revealed that learners desired recognition for their efforts and hard work but found the schools’ reward systems restrictive in terms of recognising their efforts and talent. Parents felt more excluded from reward ceremonies than their children, and many did not believe in the benefits of public rewards; however, they did admit to feeling a sense of pride when their children won awards. Although South African schools are committed to inclusive education, the interrogation of visible rewards has uncovered a competitive environment unfeasible for inclusive education.
References
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Akabor, S. 2020. “The Intention and Impact of Visibly Rewarding Learners in two Gauteng High Schools.” Doctoral thesis. University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg.
Aronson, J., and C. M. Steele. 2005. “Stereotypes and the Fragility of academic Competence, Motivation, and Self-concept.” In Handbook of Competence and Motivation, 436–455.
Bettinger, E. P. 2012. “Paying to Learn: The Effect of Financial Incentives on Elementary School Test Scores.” Review of Economics and Statistics 94 (3): 686–698. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00217.
Bettinger, E., and R. Slonim. 2007. “Patience among Children.” Journal of Public Economics 91 (1–2): 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2006.05.010
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Cameron, J., and W. D. Pierce. 1994. “Reinforcement, Reward, and intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-analysis.” Review of Educational research 64 (3): 363–423. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064003363.
Chong, P. W., and L. J. Graham. 2017. “Discourses, Decisions, Designs: ‘Special’ education Policy-making in New South Wales, Scotland, Finland and Malaysia.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 47 (4): 598–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2016.1262244.
Couros, G. 2010. The Impact of Awards. http://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/1079.
Creswell, J. W. 2012. Educational Research, fourth edition. Boston: Pearson.
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D’Amant, A. 2012. “Within and between the Old and the New: Teachers Becoming Inclusive Practitioners.” Perspectives in Education 30 (1): 53.
Deci, E. L., R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan. 1999. “A Meta-analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation.” Psychological Bulletin 125 (6): 627. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627.
Deci, E. L., R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan. 2001. “Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered once again.” Review of Educational Research 71 (1): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071001001.
Donohue, D., and J. Bornman. 2014. “The Challenges of Realizing Inclusive Education in South Africa.” South African Journal of Education 34 (2): Article 806.
Eisenkopf, G. 2011. “Paying for better Test Scores.” Education Economics 19 (4): 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645290903546330.
Engelbrecht, P. 1999. “A Theoretical Framework for Inclusive Education.” In Inclusive Education in Action in South Africa, edited by P. Engelbrecht, L. Green, S. Naicker, and L. Engelbrecht, 3–11. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Engelbrecht, P., M. Oswald, and C. Forlin. 2006. “Promoting the Implementation of Inclusive Education in Primary Schools in South Africa.” British Journal of Special Education 33 (3). 121–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2006.00427.x.
Fefer, S., J. DeMagistris, and C. Shuttleton. 2016. “Assessing Adolescent Praise and Reward Preferences for Academic Behaviour.” Translational Issues in Psychological Science 2 (2): 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000072.
Florian, L., and K. Black Hawkins. 2011. “Exploring Inclusive Pedagogy.” British Educational Research Journal 37 (5): 813–828. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2010.501096.
Florian, L., K. Black-Hawkins, and M. Rouse. 2017. Achievement and Inclusion in Schools, second edition. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750279.
Fryer, Jr R. G. 2011. “Financial Incentives and Student Achievement: Evidence from Randomized Trials.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (4): 1755–1798. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr045.
Geduld, B. 2017. “Personal and Contextual Influences on Township School Learners’ Motivation and Self-regulated Learning.” Africa Education Review 14 (2): 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2017.1291279.
Graham, L. J., and B. Macartney. 2012. “Naming or Creating A problem?” In Teaching in Inclusive School Communities, edited by S. B. Carrington and J. MacArthur. Milton: Wiley and Blackwell Publishing.
Grimaldi, E. 2012. “Neoliberalism and the Marginalisation of Social Justice: The Making of an Education Policy to Combat Social Exclusion.” International Journal of Inclusive Education 16 (11): 1131–1154. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2010.548105.
Hattie, J. 2009. Visible Learning: A Synthesis of over 800 Meta-analyses Relating to Achievement. Milton Park: Routledge.
Jalava, N., J. S. Joensen, and E. Pellas. 2014. “Grades and Rank: Impacts of Non-financial Incentives on Test Performance.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 115: 161–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.12.004.
Johnson, D. W., and R. T. Johnson. 2009. “An educational Psychology Success Story: Social Interdependence Theory and Cooperative Learning.” Educational Researcher 38 (5): 365–379. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09339057.
Kohn, A. 1993. No Contest: The Case Against Competition. San Diego: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Kohn, A. 2007. Against “Competitiveness.” Why Good Teachers Aren’t Thinking About the Global Economy. Educational Periodical. www.alfiekohn.org.
Kremer, M., E. Miguel, and R. Thornton. 2009. “Incentives to Learn.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 91 (3): 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.91.3.437.
Levitt, S. D., J. A. List, S. Neckermann, and S. Sadoff. 2012. “The Behavioralist Goes to School: Leveraging Behavioral Economics to Improve Educational Performance,” (No. w18165). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Macmillan, J. H., and S. Schumacher. 2010. Research in Education: Evidence-based Enquiry, seventh edition. New Jersey: Pearson.
Majoko, T., and N. Phasha. 2018. “The State of Inclusive Education in South Africa and the Implications for Teacher Training Programmes.” Research Report, December 2018. British Council South Africa.
Makoelle, T. M. 2012. “The State of Inclusive Pedagogy in South Africa: A Literature Review.” Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology 3 (2): 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766634.2012.11885569.
Meier, C., and C. Hartell. 2009. “Handling Cultural Diversity in education in South Africa.” SA-eDUC Journal 6 (2): 180–192.
Meltz, A., C. Herman, and V. Pillay. 2014. “Inclusive Education: A Case of Beliefs Competing for Implementation.” South African Journal of Inclusive Education 34 (3):1–8. https://doi.org/10.15700/201409161049.
Mueller, C. M., and C. S. Dweck. 1998. “Praise for Intelligence can Undermine Children’s Motivation and Performance.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1): 33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., and C. Teddlie. 2003. “A Framework for Analyzing Data in Mixed Methods Research.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research, edited by A. Tashakkori and C. Teddlie, 351–383. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Paola, M., V. Scoppa, and R. Nisticò. 2012. “Monetary Incentives and Student Achievement in a Depressed Labor Market: Results from a Randomized Experiment.” Journal of Human Capital 6 (1): 56–85. https://doi.org/10.1086/664795.
Porter, L. 2015. “Guiding Children’s Behaviour.” http://federalccc.com.au/new/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Louise-Porter-developing_responsible_behaviour.pdf.
Ryan, R. M., V. Mims, and R. Koestner. 1983. “Relation of Reward Contingency and Interpersonal Context to Intrinsic Motivation: A Review and Test Using Cognitive Evaluation Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45 (4): 736. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.736.
Sayed, Y., and C. Soudien. 2004. “Decentralisation and the Construction of Inclusion Education Policy in South Africa.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 35 (2): 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920500129916.
Slee, R. 2011. The Irregular School. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203831564.
Sobuwa, Y. 2020, January 7. “Angie Motshekga Congratulates ‘Best of the Best’ from Class of 2019.” The Sowetan. https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/ news/2020-01-07-angie-motshekga-congratulates-best-of-the-best-from-class-of-2019/.
Stofile, S. Y. 2008. “Factors Affecting the Implementation of Inclusive Education Policy: A Case Study in one Province in South Africa.” Unpublished Doctoral thesis. University of the Western Cape.
Teddlie, C., and A. Tashakkori. 2009. Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. London: Sage Publications.
Väyrynen, S., and M. Paksuniemi. 2018. “Translating Inclusive Values into Pedagogical Actions.” International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1452989.
Volmink, J. 2018. “Foreword.” The State of Inclusive Education in South Africa and the Implications for Teacher Training Programmes, edited by T. Majoko and N. Phasha. Research Report, December 2018, 9–10. British Council South Africa.
Wagner III, W. E., and B. J. Gillespie. 2018. Using and Interpreting Statistics in the Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences. London: Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071814284.n2.
Walton, E. 2011. “Getting Inclusion Right in South Africa.” Intervention in School and Clinic 46 (4): 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451210389033.
Walton, E. 2013. “Inclusion in a South African High School? Reporting and Reflecting on what Learners Say.” International Journal of Inclusive Education 17 (11): 1171–1185. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2012.742577.
Walton, E. 2014. “Working towards Education for All in Gauteng.” In Twenty Years of Education Transformation in Gauteng 1994 to 2014, edited by F. Maringe and M. Prew, 210–227. Johannesburg: African Minds.
Walton, E., N. Nel, A. Hugo, and H. Muller. 2009. “The Extent and Practice of Inclusion in Independent Schools in South Africa.” South African Journal of Education 29 (1): 105–126. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v29n1a234
Wildeman, R. A., and C. Nomdo. 2007. “Implementation of Inclusive Education: How far Are we?” IDASA-Budget Information Service.
Akabor, S. 2019. “Are Visible Rewards Congruent with Inclusive Education?” Inclusion in Education: Perspectives on Inclusive Education in South Africa 2 (1): 22–29. http://www.included.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Inclusion-in-Education-Vol-2.pdf.
Akabor, S. 2020. “The Intention and Impact of Visibly Rewarding Learners in two Gauteng High Schools.” Doctoral thesis. University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg.
Aronson, J., and C. M. Steele. 2005. “Stereotypes and the Fragility of academic Competence, Motivation, and Self-concept.” In Handbook of Competence and Motivation, 436–455.
Bettinger, E. P. 2012. “Paying to Learn: The Effect of Financial Incentives on Elementary School Test Scores.” Review of Economics and Statistics 94 (3): 686–698. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00217.
Bettinger, E., and R. Slonim. 2007. “Patience among Children.” Journal of Public Economics 91 (1–2): 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2006.05.010
Booth, T., and M. Ainscow. 2011. Index for Inclusion: Developing Learning and Participation in Schools. Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education. Bristol: CSIE.
Cameron, J., and W. D. Pierce. 1994. “Reinforcement, Reward, and intrinsic Motivation: A Meta-analysis.” Review of Educational research 64 (3): 363–423. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064003363.
Chong, P. W., and L. J. Graham. 2017. “Discourses, Decisions, Designs: ‘Special’ education Policy-making in New South Wales, Scotland, Finland and Malaysia.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 47 (4): 598–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2016.1262244.
Couros, G. 2010. The Impact of Awards. http://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/1079.
Creswell, J. W. 2012. Educational Research, fourth edition. Boston: Pearson.
Creswell, J. W. 2015. “Revisiting Mixed Methods and Advancing Scientific Practices.” In The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry, Sedited by N. Hesse-Biber and R. B. Johnson. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199933624.013.39.
D’Amant, A. 2012. “Within and between the Old and the New: Teachers Becoming Inclusive Practitioners.” Perspectives in Education 30 (1): 53.
Deci, E. L., R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan. 1999. “A Meta-analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation.” Psychological Bulletin 125 (6): 627. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627.
Deci, E. L., R. Koestner, and R. M. Ryan. 2001. “Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered once again.” Review of Educational Research 71 (1): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071001001.
Donohue, D., and J. Bornman. 2014. “The Challenges of Realizing Inclusive Education in South Africa.” South African Journal of Education 34 (2): Article 806.
Eisenkopf, G. 2011. “Paying for better Test Scores.” Education Economics 19 (4): 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645290903546330.
Engelbrecht, P. 1999. “A Theoretical Framework for Inclusive Education.” In Inclusive Education in Action in South Africa, edited by P. Engelbrecht, L. Green, S. Naicker, and L. Engelbrecht, 3–11. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Engelbrecht, P., M. Oswald, and C. Forlin. 2006. “Promoting the Implementation of Inclusive Education in Primary Schools in South Africa.” British Journal of Special Education 33 (3). 121–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2006.00427.x.
Fefer, S., J. DeMagistris, and C. Shuttleton. 2016. “Assessing Adolescent Praise and Reward Preferences for Academic Behaviour.” Translational Issues in Psychological Science 2 (2): 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000072.
Florian, L., and K. Black Hawkins. 2011. “Exploring Inclusive Pedagogy.” British Educational Research Journal 37 (5): 813–828. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2010.501096.
Florian, L., K. Black-Hawkins, and M. Rouse. 2017. Achievement and Inclusion in Schools, second edition. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750279.
Fryer, Jr R. G. 2011. “Financial Incentives and Student Achievement: Evidence from Randomized Trials.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (4): 1755–1798. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr045.
Geduld, B. 2017. “Personal and Contextual Influences on Township School Learners’ Motivation and Self-regulated Learning.” Africa Education Review 14 (2): 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2017.1291279.
Graham, L. J., and B. Macartney. 2012. “Naming or Creating A problem?” In Teaching in Inclusive School Communities, edited by S. B. Carrington and J. MacArthur. Milton: Wiley and Blackwell Publishing.
Grimaldi, E. 2012. “Neoliberalism and the Marginalisation of Social Justice: The Making of an Education Policy to Combat Social Exclusion.” International Journal of Inclusive Education 16 (11): 1131–1154. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2010.548105.
Hattie, J. 2009. Visible Learning: A Synthesis of over 800 Meta-analyses Relating to Achievement. Milton Park: Routledge.
Jalava, N., J. S. Joensen, and E. Pellas. 2014. “Grades and Rank: Impacts of Non-financial Incentives on Test Performance.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 115: 161–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.12.004.
Johnson, D. W., and R. T. Johnson. 2009. “An educational Psychology Success Story: Social Interdependence Theory and Cooperative Learning.” Educational Researcher 38 (5): 365–379. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09339057.
Kohn, A. 1993. No Contest: The Case Against Competition. San Diego: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Kohn, A. 2007. Against “Competitiveness.” Why Good Teachers Aren’t Thinking About the Global Economy. Educational Periodical. www.alfiekohn.org.
Kremer, M., E. Miguel, and R. Thornton. 2009. “Incentives to Learn.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 91 (3): 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.91.3.437.
Levitt, S. D., J. A. List, S. Neckermann, and S. Sadoff. 2012. “The Behavioralist Goes to School: Leveraging Behavioral Economics to Improve Educational Performance,” (No. w18165). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Macmillan, J. H., and S. Schumacher. 2010. Research in Education: Evidence-based Enquiry, seventh edition. New Jersey: Pearson.
Majoko, T., and N. Phasha. 2018. “The State of Inclusive Education in South Africa and the Implications for Teacher Training Programmes.” Research Report, December 2018. British Council South Africa.
Makoelle, T. M. 2012. “The State of Inclusive Pedagogy in South Africa: A Literature Review.” Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology 3 (2): 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766634.2012.11885569.
Meier, C., and C. Hartell. 2009. “Handling Cultural Diversity in education in South Africa.” SA-eDUC Journal 6 (2): 180–192.
Meltz, A., C. Herman, and V. Pillay. 2014. “Inclusive Education: A Case of Beliefs Competing for Implementation.” South African Journal of Inclusive Education 34 (3):1–8. https://doi.org/10.15700/201409161049.
Mueller, C. M., and C. S. Dweck. 1998. “Praise for Intelligence can Undermine Children’s Motivation and Performance.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1): 33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., and C. Teddlie. 2003. “A Framework for Analyzing Data in Mixed Methods Research.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research, edited by A. Tashakkori and C. Teddlie, 351–383. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Paola, M., V. Scoppa, and R. Nisticò. 2012. “Monetary Incentives and Student Achievement in a Depressed Labor Market: Results from a Randomized Experiment.” Journal of Human Capital 6 (1): 56–85. https://doi.org/10.1086/664795.
Porter, L. 2015. “Guiding Children’s Behaviour.” http://federalccc.com.au/new/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Louise-Porter-developing_responsible_behaviour.pdf.
Ryan, R. M., V. Mims, and R. Koestner. 1983. “Relation of Reward Contingency and Interpersonal Context to Intrinsic Motivation: A Review and Test Using Cognitive Evaluation Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45 (4): 736. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.736.
Sayed, Y., and C. Soudien. 2004. “Decentralisation and the Construction of Inclusion Education Policy in South Africa.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 35 (2): 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920500129916.
Slee, R. 2011. The Irregular School. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203831564.
Sobuwa, Y. 2020, January 7. “Angie Motshekga Congratulates ‘Best of the Best’ from Class of 2019.” The Sowetan. https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/ news/2020-01-07-angie-motshekga-congratulates-best-of-the-best-from-class-of-2019/.
Stofile, S. Y. 2008. “Factors Affecting the Implementation of Inclusive Education Policy: A Case Study in one Province in South Africa.” Unpublished Doctoral thesis. University of the Western Cape.
Teddlie, C., and A. Tashakkori. 2009. Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. London: Sage Publications.
Väyrynen, S., and M. Paksuniemi. 2018. “Translating Inclusive Values into Pedagogical Actions.” International Journal of Inclusive Education, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1452989.
Volmink, J. 2018. “Foreword.” The State of Inclusive Education in South Africa and the Implications for Teacher Training Programmes, edited by T. Majoko and N. Phasha. Research Report, December 2018, 9–10. British Council South Africa.
Wagner III, W. E., and B. J. Gillespie. 2018. Using and Interpreting Statistics in the Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences. London: Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071814284.n2.
Walton, E. 2011. “Getting Inclusion Right in South Africa.” Intervention in School and Clinic 46 (4): 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451210389033.
Walton, E. 2013. “Inclusion in a South African High School? Reporting and Reflecting on what Learners Say.” International Journal of Inclusive Education 17 (11): 1171–1185. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2012.742577.
Walton, E. 2014. “Working towards Education for All in Gauteng.” In Twenty Years of Education Transformation in Gauteng 1994 to 2014, edited by F. Maringe and M. Prew, 210–227. Johannesburg: African Minds.
Walton, E., N. Nel, A. Hugo, and H. Muller. 2009. “The Extent and Practice of Inclusion in Independent Schools in South Africa.” South African Journal of Education 29 (1): 105–126. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v29n1a234
Wildeman, R. A., and C. Nomdo. 2007. “Implementation of Inclusive Education: How far Are we?” IDASA-Budget Information Service.
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2022-05-24
How to Cite
Akabor, Shakira. 2022. “Learner and Parent Perceptions of Visible Rewards at Two South African High Schools: An Inclusive Education Perspective”. Commonwealth Youth and Development 19 (2):29 pages. https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6549/9089.
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