THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE AMARNA LETTERS TOWARDS A STUDY OF SYRO-PALESTINIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE (1). TERMINOLOGY FOR GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS

Authors

  • Lukas M. Muntingh

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25159/1013-8471/2557

Abstract

Egyptian domination under the 18th and 19th Dynasties deeply influenced political and social life in Syria and Palestine. The correspondence between Egypt and her vassals in Syria and Palestine in the Amarna age, first half of the fourteenth century B.C., preserved for us in the Amarna letters, written in cuneiform on clay tablets discovered in 1887, offer several terms that can shed light on the social structure during the Late Bronze Age. In the social stratification of Syria and Palestine under Egyptian rule according to the Amarna letters, three classes are discernible:1) government officials and military personnel, 2) free people, and 3) half-free people and slaves. In this study, I shall limit myself to the first, the upper class. This article deals with terminology for government officials.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Abusch, T et al. (eds) 2001. Historiography in the cuneiform world. Bethesda: CDL Press.

Aharoni, Y 1967. The land of the Bible. A historical geography. Translated from the Hebrew by AF Rainey. London: Burns & Oates.

Albright, W F 1934. The vocalization of the Egyptian syllabic orthography. American Oriental Series 5. New Haven: American Oriental Society.

_______ 1937. The Egyptian correspondence of Abimilki, prince of Tyre, JEA 23:190– 203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030751333702300137

_______ 1942. A case of lès-majesté in Pre-Israelite Lachish, with some remarks on the Israelite conquest, BASOR 87:32–38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1355462

_______ 1943a. Two little-understood letters from the Middle Jordan Valley, BASOR 89:7–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3218935

_______ 1943b. An archaic Hebrew proverb in an Amarna letter from Central Palestine. BASOR 89:29–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3218940

_______ 1943c. A tablet of the Amarna age from Gezer, BASOR 92:28–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1355270

_______ 1944a. A prince of Taanach in the fifteenth century BC, BASOR 94:12–27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1355152

_______ 1944b. An unrecognized Amarna letter from Ugarit, BASOR 95:30–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1355173

_______ 1946. Cuneiform material for Egyptian prosopography 1500-1200 BC, JNES 5:7–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/370767

_______ 1957. From the Stone Age to Christianity. Second Edition. New York: Doubleday.

_______ 1966. The Amarna letters from Palestine, in Bury, Cook and Adcock 1966.

Albright, W F and Lambdin, 1966. The evidence of language, in Bury et al. 1966.

Albright, W F and Mendenhall, G E 1969. The Amarna letters, in Pritchard 1969:483- 490.

Albright, W F and Moran, W L 1948. A re-interpretation of an Amarna letter from Byblos (EA 82), JCS 2:239–248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3515925

Alt, A 1953. Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel. (Reprint. Originally published in 1925.) Band I. München.

_______ 1959a. Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel. (Reprint. Originally published in 1950.) Band III. München.

_______ 1959b. Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel. (Reprint. Originally published in 1953.) Band III. München.

Amitai, J (ed.) 1985. Biblical Archaeology Today. Proceedings of the International Congress on Biblical Archaeology. Jerusalem, April 1984. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

Artzi, P 1964. “Vox populi†in the El-Amarna Tablets, RA 58:159–166.

_______ 1968. Some unrecognized Syrian Amarna letters (EA 260, 317, 318), JNES 27:163–171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/371960

Bagnall, R, Brodersen, K, Champion, C, Erskine, A and Huebner, S (eds) 2013. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Vol. 1, Malden, MA: WileyBlackwell DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444338386

Barnett, R D 1968. Illustrations of Old Testament history. London: The Trustees of the British Museum.

Bernhardt, K-H 1971. Verwaltungspraxis in spätbronzezeitlichen Palästina, in Klengel 1971:133–147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783112574003-016

Bodi, D 2003. Outraging the resident-alien. King David, Uriah the Hittite, and an Amarna parallel, UF 35:29–56.

Böhl, F M Th 1909. Die Sprache der Amarnabriefe. Reprint 1968. Leipzig.

Borger, R 1988. Assyrisch-Babylonische Zeichenliste. 4 Auflage. Alter Orient und Altes Testament Band 33/33 A. Kevelaer: Verlag Butzon & Bercker.

Brongers, H A 1967. Koningen. De Prediking van het Oude Testament. Nijkerk: Callenbach.

Brockelmann, C 1956. Hebräische Syntax. Kreis Moers: Neukirchen.

Buccellati, G 1963. 2 MAÅ KIM = sÄkinu, OA 11:224–228.

_______ 1967. Cities and nations of ancient Syria. Studi Semiti 26. Universita di Roma: Istituto di Studi del Vicino Oriente.

_______ (ed.) 1973. Approaches to the study of the ancient Near East. A volume of studies offered to Ignace Gelb on the occasion of his 65th birthday October 14, 1972. Rome: Biblical Institute Press.

Bury, J B, Cook, S A and Adcock, F E (eds) 1965–. The Cambridge ancient history.

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Cagni, L (ed.) 1981. La Lingua di Ebla. Atti del Convegno Internationale (Napoli 21–23 aprile 1980). Istituto Universiytario Orientale. Seminario di Studi Asiatici. Series Minor XIV. Naples.

Campbell, E F 1960. The Amarna letters and the Amarna period, Biblical Archaeologist 23:2–22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3209193

_______ 1964. The chronology of the Amarna letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.

_______ 1965. Shechem in the Amarna archive. Appendix 2, in Wright, 1965:191–207.

Cassin, E, Bottéro, J & Vercoutter, J (eds) 1966. Die alt-orientalischen Reiche II. Fischer Weltgeschichte 3. Frankfurt am Main.

Cohen, R and Westbrook, R (eds) 2000. Amarna diplomacy. The beginnings of international relations. Baltimore: The John’s Hopkins University Press.

Deimel, P 1928. Beamter. Vorbemerkung. Der orientalische Beamte im Altertum, in Ebeling & Meissner 1928:441–444.

De Koning, J 1940. Studiën over de El-Amarnabrieven en het Oude-Testament inzonderheid uit historisch oogpunt. Delft.

De Vaux, R 1939. Titres et Fonctioinnaires Égyptians a la cour de David et de Salomon, RB 48:394–405.

_______ 1961. Ancient Israel. Its life and institutions. London: Darton, Longman and Todd.

Dhorme, E 1951. Recueil Édouard Dhorme : études bibliques et orientales. (Originally published 1913–1914). Paris : Impr. Nationale.

Donner, H 1961. Der “Freund des Königsâ€, ZAW 73:269–277. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/zatw.1961.73.3.269

Donner, H and Röllig, W 1964. Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften. Band 2 Kommentar. Wiesbaden.

Dossin, G 1934. Une nouvelle letter d’El-Amarna, RA 31:125–136.

_______ 1946–48 Apil-kîn, šakkanakku de Mari, Syria 25:322–323.

_______ 1983. Mélanges d’Assyriologie (1934–1959). Leuven: Peters.

Dotan, A 1971. Phoenician A>0 shift in some Greek transcriptions, UF 293–297.

Douglas, J D (ed.) 1982. The new Bible dictionary. Second edition. Leicester: Intervarsity Press.

Drower, M S 1968 Ugarit, in Bury et al. 1968/II.

_______ 1969. Syria c. 1550–1400 BC, in Bury et al. 1969/II.

_______ 1970. Syria c. 1550–1400 BC, in Bury et al. 1969/II.

Ebeling, E 1910. Das Verbum der El-Amarna-Briefe, Beiträge zur Assyriologie und vergleichenden semitischen Sprachwissenschaft VIII/2:39–79.

Ebeling, G (ed.) 1953. Geschichte und Altes Testament. Beiträge zur historischen Theologie, 16. Tübingen.

Ebeling, E & Meissner, B (eds) 1928–. Reallexicon der Assyriologie. Berlin: de Gruyter. (RlA)

Edel, E 1948. Neue keilschriftliche Umschreibungen ägyptischer Namen aus den Boğazköytexten, JNES 7:11–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/370848

_______ 1953. Weitere Briefe aus der heiratskorrespondenz Ramses’ II. KUB III 37 +

KBo I 17 und KUB III 57, in Ebeling 1953:29–64.

Edgerton, W F 1947. The government and the governed in the Egyptian empire, JNES 6:152–160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/370830

Edzard, D O 1976. Ein Brief an den “Grossen†von Kumidi aus KÄmid al-LÅz, ZA 66:62– 67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/zava.1976.66.1.62

_______ 1980, Ein neues Tontafelfragment (Nr 7) aus KÄmid al-LÅz, ZA 70:52–54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/zava.1980.70.1.52

_______ 1985. Amarna und die Archive seiner Korrespondenten zwischen Ugarit und Gaza, in Amitai 1985:248–259.

Edzard, D O et al. (eds) 1970. KÄmid el-LÅz-Kumidi. Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde. Band 7. Bonn.

Erman, A and Grapow, H 1926–1963. Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache. Vols. I–VII. Berlin: Akademie.

Faulkner, R O 1953. Egyptian military organization, JEA 39:32–47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030751335303900104

Feigin, S I 1944. Abd-Ḫeba and the Kashi, The Jewish Quarterly Review 34:441–458. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1452150

Finkelstein, J J 1953. Cuneiform texts from Tell Billa, JCS 7:111–176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1359528

Fronzaroli, P (ed.) 1978. Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Linguistica Camito-Semitica, Firenze, 16-19 aprile 1974. Quaderni di Semitistica 5. Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali Università di Firenze.

Friedrich, J 1951. Phönizisch-Punische Grammatik. Analecta Orientalia 32. Rome.

Galling, K (ed.) 1950. Textbuch zur Geschichte Israels. Tübingen.

Gardiner, A 1950. Egyptian grammar. Second edition, fully revised. London: Oxford University Press.

_______ 1961. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gelb, I J 1981. Ebla and the Kish civilization, in Cagni 1981:9–73.

Gelb, I J et al. (eds) 1956–. The Assyrian dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: Oriental Institute. (CAD)

Gevirtz, S 1973. On Canaanite rhetoric: the evidence of the Amarna letters from Tyre, in Buccellati 1973:162–177.

Glock, A E 1971. A new Taâ€annek tablet, BASOR 204:17–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1356134

Goetze, A 1963. Šakkanakkus of the Ur III empire, JCS 17:1–31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1359610

_______ 1965. The struggle for the domination of Syria (1400–1300 BC), in Bury et al. 1965.

Gordon, C H 1947. The new Amarna tablets, Orientalia (NS)16:1–21.

_______ 1965. Ugaritic textbook. Analecta Orientalia 38. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute.

Gray, J 1952. Canaanite kingship in theory and practice, VT 2:193–220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156853352X00291

Greenberg, M 1955. The Ḫab/piru. American Oriental Series, Vol. 39. New Haven: American Oriental Society.

Gromova, D 2007. Hittite role in political history of Syria in the Amarna age reconsidered, UF 39:277–309.

Hachmann, R 1982. Die ägyptische Verwaltung in Syrien während der Amarnazeit, ZDPV 98:17–49.

Hallo, W W 1957. Early Mesopotamian royal titles. A philologic and historical analysis. American Oriental Series, Vol 43. New Haven: American Oriental Society.

Halpern, B and Huehnergard, J 1982. El-Amarna Letter 252, Orientalia (NS)51:227–230.

Helck, H-W 1939/1964. Der Einfluss der Militärführer in der 18. Ägyptischen Dynastie. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Aegyptens, Band 14. Reprint. Hildesheim.

_______ 1960. Die Ägyptische Verwaltung in den syrischen Besitzungen, MDOG 92:1– 13.

_______ 1962. Die Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v.

Chr. Ägyptologische Abhandlungen Band 5. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

Heltzer, M 1969. Problems of the social history of Syria in the Late Bronze Age, in Liverani 1969:31–46.

_______ 1979. Some problems of the military organization of Ugarit (Ugaritic ḫrd and Middle-Assyrian ḫurÄdu), OA 18:245–253.

Hermanns, S 1975. A history of Israel in Old Testament times. London: SCM Press.

Hess, R S 1985. Personal names from Amarna: alternative readings and interpretations, UF 17:157–167.

Hoch, J E 1994. Semitic words in Egyptian texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400863884

Hoffner, H Jr (ed.) 1973. Orient and occident. Essays presented to Cyrus H Gordon on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 22. Kevelaer: Neukirchener Verlag.

Izre’el, Sh 1978. The Gezer letters of the El-Amarna archive – linguistic analysis, Israel Oriental Studies 8:13–90.

_______ 1985. The Akkadian dialect of the scribes of Amurru in the 14th

–13th centuries BC. Linguistic analysis. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Tel-Aviv University. (Hebrew)

Izre’el, Sh (ed.) 1991. Amurru Akkadian: a linguistic study. Volume II Harvard Semitic Studies 41. Atlanta Georgia: Scholars Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004369627

Kemp, B 2012. The city of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Amarna and its people. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd.

Kitchen, K A 1969. Interrelations of Egypt and Syria, in Liverani 1969:77–95.

_______ 1982. Joseph, in Douglas 1982:617–620.

Klengel, H 1964. Aziru von Amurru und seine Rolle in der Geschichte der Amarnazeit, MIO 10:57–83.

_______ 1969a. Geschichte Syriens im 2. Jahrtausend v.u. Z. Teil 2. Mittel- und Südsyrien. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.

_______ 1969b. Probleme einer politischen Geschichte des spätbronzezeitlichen Syrien, in Liverani 1969:15–30.

Klengel, H (ed.) 1971. Beiträge zur sozialen Struktur des Alten Vorderasien. Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des Alten Orients. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783112320822

Knudtzon, J A 1899. Weitere Studien zu dem El-Amarna-Tafeln, Beiträge zur Assyriologie und vergleichenden semitischen Sprachwissenschaft IV:279–337.

_______ 1915/1964. Die El-Amarna-Tafeln. Vorderasiatische Bibliothek, 2. Anmerkungen und Register bearbeitet von O Weber und E Ebeling. Reprint. Aalen: Otto Zeller. (EAT)

Kühne, C 1973. Die Chronologie der internationalen Korrespondenz von El-Amarna. Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Band 17. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker.

Kupper, J-R 1950. Lettres royales du temps de Zimri-Lin. Archives Royales du Mari. Paris. (ARM I)

Lambdin, T O 1953. The Miši-people of the Byblian Amarna letters, JCS 7:75–77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1359543

Landsberger, B 1976. The conceptual anatomy of the Babylonian world. (Translated from German by T. Jacobsen et. al.) Malibu: Undena.

La Roche, E 1956. Catalog des Testes Hittite, RHA 14:26–29.

Liverani, M 1965. Implicazioni sociali nella politica di Abdi-Ashirta di Amurru, RSO 40:267–277.

_______ 1967. Contrasti e confluenze di concezioni politiche nell’età di el-Amarna, RA 61:1–18.

_______ 1971. Le lettere del Faraone a Rib-Adda, OA 10:253–268.

_______ 1973. Memorandum on the approach to historiographic texts, Orientalia 42(NS):178–194. (Also published in Buccellati 1973:178-194).

_______ 1977. Le chêne de Sherdanu, VT 27:212–216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156853377X00483

_______ 2001. Mesopotamian historiography and the Amarna letters, in Abusch 2001:303–311.

Liverani, M (ed.) 1969. La Siria nel Tardo Bronzo. Orientis Antiqui Collectio, IX. Rome: Centro per le antichita` e la storia dell’arte del Vicino Oriente.

Loretz, O 1974. ENri=IWRI in EA 286, UF 6:435.

Malamat, A 1966. Syrien-Palästina in der zweiten Hälfte des 2. Jahrtausends, in Cassin et al. 1966:177–359.

Mendenhall, G E 1947. The message of Abdi-ashirta to the warriors, EA 74, JNES 6:123– 124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/370826

Mercer, S A B 1939. The Tell El-Amarna tablets. Toronto: Macmillan Company of Toronto.

Mettinger, T N D 1971 Solomonic state officials. Coniectanea Biblica. Old Testament Series 5. Lund: Gleerup.

Metzger, M 1975. Der spätbronzezeitliche Tempel von Tell KÄmid el-LÅz. XXe RAI, 1972. Leiden: Brill.

Mikasa, H.I.H Prince Takahito (ed.) 1984. Monarchies and socio-religious traditions in the ancient Near East. Bulletin of the Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan. Vol. I. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

_______ 1991. Monarchies and socio-religious traditions in the ancient Near East.

Bulletin of the Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan. Vol. IV. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Mohammed, M A-K 1959. The administration of Syro-Palestine during the New Kingdom, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte LVI:105–137.

Montet, P 1958. Everyday life in Egypt in the days of Ramesses the Great. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.

Moran, W L 1950. A syntactical study of the dialect of Byblos as reflected in the Amarna Tablets. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.

_______ 1960. Early Canaanite yaqtula, Orientalia 29(NS):1–19.

_______ 1961. The Hebrew language in its Northwest Semitic background, in Wright 1961:54–72.

_______ 1973. The dual personal pronouns in Western Peripheral Akkadian, BASOR 211:50–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1356410

_______ 1975. Amarna glosses, RA 69:147–158.

_______ 1992. The Amarna letters. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Mulder, M J 197.2 Versuch zur Deutung von sokènèt in 1. Kön. I 2, 4, VT 22:43–54. Müller, D 1961. Der gute Hirte, ZäS 86:126–144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156853372X00460

Muntingh, L M 1963. The social structure in the residential area of the Canaanites during the Late Bronze Age. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Stellenbosch. (Afrikaans)

_______ 1978. Israelite-Amorite political relations during the second millennium BC in the light of Near Eastern policies. A study of relevant Amorite, Akkadian and Hebrew concepts, in Fronzaroli 1978:211–236.

_______ 1984. The conception of ancient Syro-Palestinian kingship in the light of contemporary royal archives with special reference to the recent discoveries at Tell

Mardikh (Ebla) in Syria, in Mikasa 1984:1–10.

_______ 1991. Syro-Palestinian problems in the light of the Amarna letters, in Mikasa 1991:155–194..

_______ 1995. An Amarna letter (EA 162) from a pharaoh to Aziru of Amurru in the light of recent research, Journal for Semitics 7/2:162–195.

Murnane, W J 2000. Imperial Egypt and the limits of power, in Cohen and Westbrook 2000:101–111.

Mynářová, J 2013. Amarna letters, in Bagnall 2013:347–348.

Na’aman, N 1979. The origin and historical background of several Amarna letters, UF 11:673–684.

_______ 1988. Biryawasa of Damascus and the date of the Kamid El-LÅz ‘Apiru letters, UF 20:179 193.

_______ 2005. Resident-alien or residing foreign delegate? On the ubÄru in some Late Bronze texts, UF 37:475–478.

Noth, M 1968. Könige. 1. Band. Biblischer Kommentar. Altes Testament. Band IX/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag.

Nougayrol, J 1956. Le palais royal d’Ugarit. Vol. 2. Paris. (PUR)

Oppenheim, A L 1947. Assyriological gleanings IV, BASOR 107:7–11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1355832

_______ 1968. The eyes of the Lord, JAOS 88:173–180. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/597911

Pettinato, G 1981. The archives of Ebla. New York: Doubleday.

Pritchard, J B (ed.) 1969. Ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament. Third edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. (ANET)

Rainey, A F 1967. A social structure of Ugarit. Ann Arbor.

_______ 1970. El Amarna tablets 359–379: Supplement to J. A. Knudtzon, Die ElAmarna-Tafeln. Alter Orient und Altes Testament, Band 8 Kevelaer: Neukirchener Verlag. (EAS)

_______ 1971. A front line report from Amurru, UF 3:131–149.

_______ 1973. Ilanu reṣutni lilliku! in Hoffner 1973:139–142

_______ 1974 ElCAmârna notes, UF 6:295–312.

_______ 1976. KL 72:600 and the D-passive in West Semitic, UF 8:337–341.

_______ 1978. Revised edition of 1970 (EAS) AOAT82.

Ranke, H 1910. Keilschriftliches Material zur Altägyptischen Vokalisation. Abhandlungen der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Jahrgang 1910; Philosophisch-Historische Klasse. Berlin: G. Reimer.

Reviv, H 1966. The government of Shechem in the El-Amarna period and in the days of Abimelech. IEJ 16:252–257.

_______ 1969. On urban representative institutions and self-government in SyriaPalestine in the second half of the second millennium BC. JESHO XII/III:283–297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156852069X00125

Schroeder, O 1915a. Die Tontafeln von El-Amarna. Heft XI. Erste Teil. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrich.

_______ 1915b. Die Tontafeln von El-Amarna. Heft XII. Zweiter Teil. Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der Königlichen Museen zu Berlin. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrich.

_______ 1918. Ueber die Glossen ši-ir(-ma) und mar-ia-nu(-ma) in den Briefen RibAddi’s,

OLZ XXI Nr 5/6: col 125–127.

Singer, I 1991. A concise history of Amurru, Appendix III in Izre’el 1991.

Snijders, L A 1969. Jesaja deel 1: De prediking van het Oude Testament. Nijkerk: Callenbach.

Speiser, E A 1964. The Anchor Bible. Genesis. New York: Doubleday

Spence, K. 2013. Amarna, in Bagnall 2013:344–347. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f4559

Thomas, D W 1960. Kelebh “dogâ€: its origin and some usages of it in the Old Testament, VT 10:410–427. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156853360X00418

Thomas, D W (ed.) 1958. Documents from Old Testament times. London: Nelson.

Thureau-Dangin, F 1922. Nouvelles lettres d’El-Amarna, RA 19:91–108.

Tropper, J 2008. Kleines Wörterbuch des Ugaritishen. Elementa Linguarum Orientis 4. Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz.

Ungnad, A 1916. Review of Knudtzon 1915, OLZ 19/6: cols 180–187. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1524/olzg.1916.19.16.190

Van Selms, A 1950. The best man and bride – from Sumer to St John with a new interpretation of Judges, chapter 14 and 15, JNES 9:65–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/370959

_______ 1957. The origin of the title “The king’s friendâ€, JNES 16:118–123.

_______ 1967. Genesis, deel II. De prediking van het Oude Testament. Nijkerk: Callenbach.

Van Seters, J 1966. The Hyksos. A new investigation. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Virrolleaud, C 1957. Le palais royal d’Ugarit. Paris: Imprimerie nationale. (PUR)

Von Soden, W 1952. Grundriss der Akkadischen Grammatik. Analecta Orientalia 33. Rome: Pontificum Institutum Biblicum.

_______ 1965–1981. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (AHw)

_______ 1974. Sprache, Denken und Begriffsbildung im Alten Orient. Wiesbaden: Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur.

_______ 1994. The ancient Orient – an introduction to the study of the ancient Near East. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.

Ward, W A 1960. The Egyptian office of Joseph, JSS 5:144–150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jss/5.2.144

Weinstein, J M 1981. The Egyptian Empire in Palestine: a reassessment, BASOR 241:1– 28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1356708

Weir, C J M 1958. Letters from Tell El-Amarna, in Thomas 1958:38–45.

Wiseman, D J 1953. The Alalakh tablets. Occasional Papers of the British Institute of Archaeology, 25. London.

_______ 1982. Shebna, in Douglas 1982:1099.

Wilhelm, G 1973. Ein Brief der Amarna-Zeit aus KÄmid el-LÅz (KL 72:600), ZA 63:69– 75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/zava.1973.63.1.69

Wright, G E (ed.) 1961. The Bible and the ancient Near East. London: Gerald Duckworth.

Youngblood, R F 1961. The Amarna correspondence of Rib-Haddi, prince of Byblos (EA 68–96). Unpublished PhD dissertation. Philadelphia: The Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning.

_______ 1962. Amorite influence in a Canaanite Amarna letter (EA 96), BASOR 168:24– DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1356031

Downloads

Published

2017-05-09

How to Cite

Muntingh, Lukas M. 2016. “THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE AMARNA LETTERS TOWARDS A STUDY OF SYRO-PALESTINIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE (1). TERMINOLOGY FOR GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS”. Journal for Semitics 25 (2):788-832. https://doi.org/10.25159/1013-8471/2557.

Issue

Section

Back Isssues