VIRGINITY TESTING: PERCEPTIONS OF ADOLESCENT GIRLS IN THE EASTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/1812-6371/3412Keywords:
community support, Inkciyo, inspection, pride, Xhosa tradition, virginity testingAbstract
This article contributes to the literature on virginity testing by expounding the perspective of girls regarding the practice of virginity testing. The study was conducted in Mthatha, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa to explore the perceptions and attitudes of girls about the practice of Inkciyo – virginity testing. Participants were aged 16 to 19 years from St John’s College. Data were collecte through five focus group discussions with eight respondents per group. Audio data were transcribed and translated into English. Data were managed through QSR NVIVO 8. Our findings show that participants started participating in Inkciyo before the legal age of 16. Respondents cite various reasons for participating in Inkciyo including preserving their Xhosa culture, pride, and enjoying community support. Non-participation in the practice was attributed to non-performance of Inkciyo in their communities. We conclude that research is needed to investigate the acceptability of Inkciyo in other communities and to assess its impact on modifying sexual behaviour for positive sexual health outcomes, in particular reducing HIV incidence in these communities.
References
Alcorn, K. (2010, Thursday, March 25). South Africa to launch mass HIV testing drive in April, to test 15 million in one year Aidsmap news. Retrieved from http://www.aidsmap.com/en/news/1494FB3F-1B14-4CBA-B654-766881821A00.asp?type=preview
Amy, J. -J. (2008). Certificates of virginity and reconstruction of the hymen. The
European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 13(2), 111–113.
doi:10.1080/13625180802106045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13625180802106045
Bersamin, M. M., Fisher, D. A., Walker, S., Hill, D. L., & Grube, J. W. (2007). Defining virginity and abstinence: Adolescents’ interpretations of sexual behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(2), 182–188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.03.011
Breakwell, G. M. (1995). Interviewing. In G. M. Breakwell, S. Hammond, & C. Fife-Shaw
(Eds.), Research methods in psychology (pp. 230–242). London: Sage.
Buga, G. A., Amoko, D. H., & Ncayiyana, D. J. (1996). Sexual behaviour, contraceptive practice and reproductive health among school adolescents in rural Transkei. South African Medical Journal, 86(5), 523–527.
Decosas, J. (2009). Adolescent sexual health in West Africa: Rights, realities, responses. In S.
C. Stefanie Conrad. Editorial committee: Bell’aube Houinato, Dr. Bernabe Yameogo, Dr.
Pabanam N’zonou, & M. A. Dr. Bernard Gnahoui-David, Messan Azanlekor (Eds.). Dakar,
Senegal: Plan West Africa.
Department of Health. (2009). 2008 National Antenatal Sentinel HIV & Syphilis Prevalence
Survey South Africa Report. Pretoria.
DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., Sionean, C., Crosby, R., Harrington, K., Davies, S., .. . Oh, M. K. (2002). Association of Adolescents’ History of Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) and Their Current High-Risk Behavior and STD Status: A Case for Intensifying Clinic-Based Prevention Efforts. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29(9), 503–509. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007435-200209000-00002
Elam, Y. (1975). Family and polity in Ankole: The Hima household and the absence of age-sets. Ethnology, 14(2), 163–171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3773087
Federal Ministry of Health Nigeria. (2009). Assessment report of the national response to young people sexual and reproductive health in Nigeria. Abuja, Nigeria: Federal Ministry of Health. George, E. (2008). “Like a Virgin? Virginity Testing as HIV/AIDS Prevention: Human Rights Universalism and Cultural Relativism Revisited†Paper presented at the International & Comparative Law Colloquium Papers. Paper 4. http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/iclc_papers/4
George, E., & Finberg, A. (2001). Sexual violence on schools. In Human Rights Watch (Ed.),
Scared at school: sexual violence against girls in South African schools. United States of
America: Human Rights Watch (Organization).
Jaspan, H. B., Soka, N. F., Mathews, C., Flisher, A. J., Mark, D., Middelkoop, K., . . . Bekker,L.-G. (2009). A qualitative assessment of perspectives on the inclusion of adolescents in HIV vaccine trials in South Africa. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 21(3), 172–176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1258/ijsa.2009.008484
Jewkes, R., Dunkle, K., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Khuzwayo, N., . . . Duvvury, N. (2006).
Factors associated with HIV sero-status in young rural South African women: connections
between intimate partner violence and HIV. Int. J. Epidemiol., 35(6), 1461–1468. doi:
1093/ije/dyl218
Jewkes, R., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Dunkle, K. L., Khuzwayo, N., . . . Duvvury, N.
(2006). A cluster randomized-controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of Stepping
Stones in preventing HIV infections and promoting safer sexual behaviour amongst youth in
the rural Eastern Cape, South Africa: Trial design, methods and baseline findings. Tropical
Medicine & International Health, 11(1), 3-16. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01530.
Jewkes, R., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Dunkle, K. L., Puren, A., & Duvvury, N. (2008). Impact of Stepping Stones on incidence of HIV and HSV-2 and sexual behaviour in rural South Africa: cluster randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 337(7666). doi: a506 10.1136/bmj.a506 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a506
Jewkes, R., Sikweyiya, Y., Morrell, R., & Dunkle, K. (2009). Understanding men’s health and use of violence: Interface of rape and HIV in South Africa. (G. a. H. R. Unit, Trans.) Policy Brief: Medical Research Council.
Karim, A. M., Williams, T., Patykewich, L., Ali, D., Colvin, C. E., Posner, J., & Rutaremwa, G. (2009). The Impact of the African Youth Alliance Program on the Sexual Behavior of Young People in Uganda. Studies in Family Planning, 40(4), 289–306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2009.00212.x
Karim, Q. A. (2005). Heterosexual transmission of HIV-the importance of a gendered perspective in HIV prevention. In S. S. A. Karim & Q. A. Karim (Eds.), HIV/AIDS in South Africa. Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Kelly, K., & Ntlabati, P. (2002). Early Adolescent Sex in South Africa: HIV Intervention DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02533950208458722
Challenges. Social Dynamics: A journal of African studies, 28(1), 42–63.
Kinoti, K. (2005). Virginity Testing and the War against AIDS: A look at the implications of adopting virginity testing as a tool in preventing HIV transmission. AWID Resource Net
Friday File, (239). http://awid.org/eng/Issues-and-Analysis/Library/Virginity-Testing-andthe-
War-against-AIDS2
Kools, J.-P. (2008). Drug Use and HIV risk among young people in sub-Saharan Africa. In
Consultant (Ed.). The Netherlands: Commissioned by STOP AIDS NOW!
Leclerc-Madlala, S. (2001). Virginity testing: Managing sexuality in a maturing HIV/AIDS DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.2001.15.4.533
epidemic. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 15(4, Special Issue), 533–552.
Linde, C. (1987). Explanatory systems in oral life stories. In N. Quinn & D. Holland (Eds.),Cultural Models in Language and Thougth (pp. 343-366). Cambridge: USA: Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511607660.015
Magnussen, L., Ehiri, J. E., Ejere, H. O., & Jolly, P. E. (2004). Interventions to prevent HIV/AIDS among adolescents in less developed countries: Are they effective? International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 16(4), 303–323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/IJAMH.2004.16.4.303
Makiwane, M., & Kwizera, S. (2008). Youth and well-Being: A South African case study. Social Indicators Research, 91(2), 223–242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9279-7
Meston, C. M., Heiman, J. R., Trapnell, P. D., & Paulhus, D. L. (1998). Socially Desirable
Responding and Sexuality Self-Reports. The Journal of Sex Research, 35(2), 148–157.
Millward, L. J. (2000). Focus groups. In H. Breakwell & F.-S. C (Eds.), Research methods in
psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 302-324). Sage.
Ndlovu, C. (2005). Virginity Testing Raises Many Questions. Voices from the Field Network, 23( 4). http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v23_4/nt2343.htm
Nduna, M., & Jewkes, R. (2011). Silence: A strategy to deal with psychological distress among young people in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Vulnerable Child and Youth Studies: An International Interdisciplinary Journal for Research, Policy and Care, 6(4), 360–372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2011.643833
Nduna, M., & Swaartbooi-Xabadiya, Z. (2011). Understanding Young Women’s Sexual
Vulnerability in South Africa. Sexuality in Africa Magazine and Monographs, 7(1), 18–19.
O.R. Tambo House. (2005/2006). Integrated development plan. Retrieved from http://isrdp.dplg.
gov.za/documents/IDP/ISRDP/OR_Tambo_IDP.pdf.
O’Connor, H., & Gibson, N. (2003). A step-by-step guide to qualitative data analysis. Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Indigenous and Aboriginal Community Health 1(1), 63–90.
Pelin, S. Þ. (1999). The question of virginity testing in Turkey. Bioethics, 13(3–4), 256–261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8519.00154
Price, L. (1987). Ecuadorian illness stories: Cultural knowledge in natural discourse. In N. Quinn & D. Holland (Eds.), Cultural Models in Language and Thought (pp. 313–342). USA: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511607660.014
Cambridge Press.
Rector, R., & Johnson, K. (2005). This is a White Paper on abstinence adolescent virginity pledges and risky sexual behaviors.
Republic of South Africa. (1996). Choice of termination of Pregnancy Act, No. 92 of 1996.
Pretoria. Government Printers.
Republic of South Africa. (2005). Children’s Act, No. 38 of 2005. Pretoria. Government Printers.
Scorgie, F. (2002). Virginity testing and the politics of sexual responsibility: Implications for AIDS intervention. African Studies, 61(1), 55–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00020180220140073
Shalhoub-Kevorkian, N. (2005). Imposition of virginity testing: a life-saver or a license to kill? Social Science & Medicine, 60(6), 1187–1196. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.07.015
Shisana, O., Rehle, T., Simbayi, L., Parker, W., Zuma, K., Bhana, A., . . . Pillay, V. (2005). South African National HIV Prevalence, Behaviour and Communication Survey of 2005. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council.
Shisana, O., Rehle, T., Simbayi, L., Zuma, K., Jooste, S., Pillay, V., . . . The SABSSMIII
Implementation Team. (2009). South African National HIV Prevalence, Behaviour and Communication Survey of 2008: A turning tide among teenagers. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council.
Singer, R. (2000). Chastity tests: Unusual tool for public health. The Christian Science Monitor.
Soul City. (2008). One Love. Multiple and concurrent sexual partnerships in Southern Africa: A ten country research report. Johanesburg: Soul City Institute Regional Programme.
Speziale, H. J. S., & Carpenter, D. R. (2007). Qualitative research in nursing: Advancing the humanistic imperative (4th ed.). USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Statistics South Africa. (2005). Stages in the life cycle of South Africans. In S. S. C. 2001 (Ed.), (Vol. Report no. 03–02–46 (2001)). Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
Taylor, M., Dlamini, S., Jinabhai, C., de Vries, H., & Kagoro, H. (2002). Rural high school pupils’ perceptions regarding virginity testing for the prevention of HIV/AIDS in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Paper presented at the International Conference on AIDS. http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/meetingabstracts/ma?f=102251203.htmTeitelman, A. M., Ratcliffe, S.J., & Cederbaum, J. A. (2008). Parent—Adolescent communication about sexual pressure, maternal norms about relationship power, and STI/HIV protective behaviors of minority urban girls. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 14, 50–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390307311770
UNAIDS. (2009a). 2008 Report on the global AIDS epidemic. Switzerland: United Nations
Program on HIV/AIDS.
UNAIDS. (2009b). Operational plan for UNAIDS Action Framework: addressing women, girls,
gender equality and HIV. Geneva, Switzerland.