Onomastics in Zimbabwean Sign Language: Unpacking the Signs for City Names

Tawanda Matende; Victor Mugari; Crous Hlungwane; Jani De Lange

doi:10.25159/2663-6697/21093

Authors

Tawanda Matende University of Zimbabwe https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2214-0760
Victor Mugari University of Zimbabwe
Crous Hlungwane University of Venda,University of Venda
Jani De Lange University of the Free State https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9350-6606

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6697/21093

Keywords:

Sign Language (SL), onomastics, toponyms, linguistic etymology, Deaf culture, city name signs in Zimbabwe

Abstract

This study explains how Zimbabwean city names are formed and constructed in Zimbabwean Sign Language (ZSL) by the Deaf community. Data was collected through general lexical elicitation and semi-structured interviews with 10 profoundly deaf individuals: five students at Emerald Hill School of the Deaf and five adults at Copa-Cabana Bus Terminus in Harare, selected via purposive sampling. The primary goal of this research is to contribute to a less explored area of Sign Language (SL) linguistics: toponyms (place names). We provide a detailed description of ZSL toponyms, explicating their linguistic structure and the underlying cultural logic that reflects their social environment of origin and use. By comparing spoken and signed languages—even within the relatively small domain of toponyms—this study highlights interesting parallels and significant differences between the two modalities. A secondary objective is language documentation. Recognising languages as a significant part of humanity’s heritage, their documentation is crucial. Existing ZSL dictionaries and materials (e.g., Volume 1, Volume 2, and the King George VI Centre and School ZSL dictionary) largely omit most Zimbabwean place names. Therefore, working directly with Deaf signers in Zimbabwe was essential to document their signs for local place names. This research includes photographic documentation of ZSL toponyms. This vocabulary list will be valuable for Deaf individuals, educators, SL interpreters working in schools, universities, and businesses in Zimbabwe, as well as for hearing people interacting with the Deaf community. The findings reveal various methods for signing Zimbabwean cities, categorising them into four types: (1) arbitrary (initialised) name signs, (2) descriptive name signs, (3) initialised descriptive name signs, and (4) loan/borrowed name signs. This study offers immediate and insightful contributions to the understanding of cultural and linguistic diversity.

Author Biographies

Tawanda Matende, University of Zimbabwe

Mr Tawanda Matende is a Canon Collins scholar and a lecturer in the Department of Languages,
Literature and Culture at the University of Zimbabwe. He is completing his PhD with the University of
Venda in South Africa. His research interests are in the areas of Sign Language, language policy and
planning, language and sustainable development, linguistic human rights and translation and
interpretation.

Victor Mugari, University of Zimbabwe

Prof Victor Mugari is the Acting Dean of the Faculty of Education at the University of Zimbabwe where he served as the Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities and Chairman of the Department of Linguistics. He is an Associate Professor of Linguistics who graduated with a Doctoral degree in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics from the Beijing Language and Culture University (China). His research interests include syntax and its interfaces with semantics, morphology, sociolinguistics, strategic communication, bilingualism and second language Learning. He is currently working on Sign Language research, and language in ICT research. His research has seen him getting awards including, inter alia, the UZ Research, Innovation and Industrialization Week Awards 2023 best Humanities Project, the Association of African Languages Association of Southern Africa (ALASA) best Linguistics Paper 2015, The University of Zimbabwe Faculty of Arts Research Awards 2017 for the most prolific research category and the Research and Intellectual Expo second Prize 2012.

References

Aarons, D. L. 2015. “Following Orders: Playing Fast and Loose with Language and Letters.” Australian Journal of Linguistics 35 (4): 351–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/07268602.2015.1068459. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07268602.2015.1068459

Abdikhalikovna, F. K. 2020. “Principles of Toponyms (Place Names) Classifications.” International Journal of Multicultural and Multi-Religious Understanding 7 (6): 73–79. https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v7i6.1738. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v7i6.1738

Andersson, T. 1994. “Ortnamnens existentiella villkor” [The existential conditions of place names]. In Ortnamn värda att vårda. Föredrag från Riksan-tikvarieämbetets symposium Ortnamnskultur. Stockholm 5–7 maj 1993, edited by G. Ulfsparre, 7–21. Stockholm: Riksantikvarieämbetet.

Battison, R. H. 1978. Lexical Borrowing in American Sign Language. Silver Springs: Linstok.

Bar-Tzur, D. 1999. “Integrating the Interpreting Service Models.” The Interpreter’s Friend (blog), March 25. Accessed July 27, 2025. www.theinterpretersfriend.com/misc/models.html.

Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. London: George Allen and Unwin.

Chabata, E. 2012. “Feature Names and Identity in Zimbabwe.” Oslo Studies in Language 4 (2): 45–59. https://doi.org/10.5617/osla.309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5617/osla.309

Chimedza, R., C. Z. Sithole, and H. M. Rinashe. 2007. Zimbabwe National Sign Language Dictionary. Harare: Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture.

Carmel, S. J. 1996. “Deaf Folklore.” In American Folklore: An Encyclopedia, edited by J. H. Brunvand, 197–200. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities, Vol. 1551. New York: Garland Publishing.

Deaf Zimbabwe Trust. 2015. “Position Paper on the Situation of Deaf Children in Zimbabwe Schools. A Focus on the Implementation of SL in Teaching Deaf Children.” Harare: Zimbabwe. Unpublished.

Hagström, C. 2006. Man är vad man heter. Namn och identitet [One is what one is named. Name and identity]. Stockholm: Carlsson Bokförlag.

Helleland, B. 2012. “Place Names and Identities.” Oslo Studies in Language 4 (2): 95–116. https://doi.org/10.5617/osla.313. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5617/osla.313

Herbert, K. 1999. “Personal Names as Social Protest: The Status of African Political Names.” Names: A Journal of Onomastics 47 (2): 109–124. https://doi.org/10.1179/nam.1999.47.2.109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/nam.1999.47.2.109

Hofer, T. 2021. “What’s in a Place Name in Tibetan Sign Language? Iconicity and the Use of Signed Toponyms among Deaf Signers in Lhasa.” Senri Ethnological Studies 107: 133–175.

Johnston, T., and A. Shembri. 2017. Australian Sign Language: An Introduction to Sign Language Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kabote, F., C. T. Gweshe, and C. Muchenje. 2023. “Tourists’ Activities and Their Impacts on Chinhoyi Caves Heritage Site, Zimbabwe.” Qeios Preprint, July 6. https://doi.org/10.32388/I41HOM. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32388/I41HOM

Kahari, G. 1990. Plots and Characters in Shona Fiction, 1956–1984: A Handbook. Gweru: Mambo Press.

Klima, S. E., and U. Bellugi. 1979. “Wit and Plays on Signs.” In The Signs of Language, edited by E. S. Klima, U. Bellugi, and R. Battison, 319–339. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kourbetis, V., and R. J. Hofmeister. 2002. “Name Signs in Greek Sign Language.” American Annals of the Deaf 147 (3): 35−43. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012.0204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012.0204

Ladzekpo, K. M. 1985. African Personal Names: An Introduction to Their Historical and Cultural Significance. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Leonovich, O. A. 1994. Ocherki anglojazychnoj onomastiki. Moskva: Interpraks.

Loth, C., G. Kotzé, and J. De Lange. 2021. “SASL Place-Name Planning: Developing an App as a Non-Official Intervention.” Paper presented at the SALALS 2021 Conference, Paper 27, the International Conference of the Digital Humanities Association of Southern Africa.

Mashiri, P., E. Chabata, and E. Chitando. 2013. “A Socio-Cultural and Linguistic Analysis of Post-Colonial Christian Naming Practices in Zimbabwe.” Journal for Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences 2 (2): 163–173.

Matai, J., and W. Zimunya. 2020. “Connecting Biophilic Design to Neighbourhood Energy Use Optimisation in Rural Towns: The Case of Birchenough Bridge.” Journal of Urban Systems and Innovations for Resilience in Zimbabwe 2 (1): 40–60.

Matende, T., V. Mugari., and P. Svongoro. 2025. “Communication Challenges Faced by Deaf Patients in Zimbabwe’s Health Domain.” Namibian Journal of Linguistics, Language and Communication Studies 17 (2): 43–60. https://doi.org/10.59677/njllcs.v17i2.87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.59677/njllcs.v17i2.87

Mbiba, B. 2017. “Harare: From a European Settler-Colonial ‘Sunshine City’ to a ‘Zhing-Zhong’ African City.” International Development Planning 39 (4): 375–398. https://doi.org/10.3828/idpr.2017.13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3828/idpr.2017.13

McKee, R. L., and D. McKee. 2000. “Name Signs and Identity in Deaf Communities in New Zealand Sign Language.” In Bilingualism and Identity in Deaf Communities, edited by M. Metzger, 3–40. Washington: Gallaudet University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.28174260.6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.28174260.6

Meir, I., and W. Sandler. 2007. A Language in Space: The Story of Israeli Sign Language. New York: Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203810118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203810118

Mpofu, J., S. Chimhenga, and O. Mafa. 2013. “Developing Effective Learning Material to Students with Hearing Impairment through ODL in Zimbabwe.” Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education 14 (1): 44–52. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/155777.

Ncube, B., N. Dhlamini, and T. Moyo. 2013. “The Philosophy of Naming among the Ndebele of Zimbabwe. A Study of Children’s Names Born between 1970–1982.” International Journal of Asian and Social Science 3 (8): 1725–1731.

Ndlovu, E., and Z. Makwavarara. 2023. “The Teaching and Learning of Sign Language at the University of Zimbabwe.” EAJESS: East African Journal of Education and Social Sciences 4 (2): 10–24. https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2023v04i02.0271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2023v04i02.0271

Nonaka, A. M. 2015. “Toponyms in Ban Khor Sign Language.” In “Indigenous Sign Language,” special issue, Learning Communities: International Journal of Learning in Social Contexts 16: 66–91. https://doi.org/10.18793/LCJ2015.16.06. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18793/LCJ2015.16.06

Paales, L. 2011. “Name Signs for Hearing People.” Folklore Electronic Journal of Folklore 47: 43–76. https://doi.org/10.7592/FEJF2011.47.paales. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7592/FEJF2011.47.paales

Päll, P. 2002. “Eesti kohanimed” [Estonian place names]. In Eesti murded ja kohanimed, edited by T. Hennoste, 223–297. Tallinn: Eesti Keele Sihtasutus.

Pfukwa, C. 1998. “Their Own Godparents.” Zimbabwean Review 4 (3): 28–30.

Pfukwa, C. 2003. “Onomastic Innovation in Zimbabwean Noms De Guerre.” Language Matters: Studies in the Languages of Africa 34 (1): 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10228190308566189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10228190308566189

Pongweni, A. 1983. Reply to George P. Kahari’s Review of What’s in a Name? by Alec J.C. Pongweni, Gweru, Mambo Press, 1982. Zambezia 11 (2): 163–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30811-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30811-3

Rech, G. C., and F. S. F. Sell. 2024. “The Process of Naming Hearing Individuals Belonging to Deaf Communities Using Brazilian Sign Language (Libras).” ONOMA: Journal of the International Council of Onomastic Sciences 59: 115–134. https://doi.org/10.34158/ONOMA.59/2024/6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34158/ONOMA.59/2024/6

Republic of Zimbabwe. 2013. Constitution of Zimbabwe. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Zimbabwe_2013.

Revilla, B. 2009. “Place Names in Israeli Sign Language.” MA diss., University of North Dakota. https://commons.und.edu/theses/4473/.

Rutherford, S. D. 1993. A Study of American Deaf Folkore. Burtonsville: Linstok Press Dissertation Series.

Schow, R. L., and M. A. Nerbonne. 2013. Introduction of Audiologic Rehabilitation. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education.

Shunary, J. 1969. “Social Background of the Israeli Sign Language.” UCL Ear Institute and Action on Hearing Loss Libraries. https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/library-rnid/2019/03/29/the-origin-of-israeli-sign-language-deaf-education-in-israel/social-background-of-the-israeli-sign-language-13702dr/.

Smith, A. C., and N. Dlodlo. 2018. “Preserving the Ndebele Dress Code through the Internet of Things Technologies.” In AfriCHI ‘18: Proceedings of the Second African Conference for Human Computer Interaction: Thriving Communities, edited by H. Winschiers-Theophilus, I. van Zyl, N. Goagoses, D. Singh Jat, E. G. Belay, R. Orji, and A. Peters. New York: Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). https://doi.org/10.1145/3283458.3283469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3283458.3283469

Supalla, S. J. 1992. The Book of Name Signs: Naming in American Sign Language. San Diego: Dawn Sign Press.

Sutton-Spence, R., and B. Woll. 1999. The Linguistics of British Sign Language. An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139167048. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139167048

Stamp, R., A. Schembri, J. Fenlon, R. Rentelis, B. Woll, and K. Cormier. 2014. “Lexical Variation and Change in British Sign Language.” PLoS ONE 9 (4): e94053. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094053. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094053

Stokoe, W. 1978. Sign Language Structure: The First Linguistic Analysis of American Sign Language. Silver Spring: Linstock Press.

Stokoe, W. C., ed. 1980. Sign and Culture: A Reader for Students of American Sign Language. Silver Spring: Linstok Press.

Tatira, L. 2004. “Beyond the Dog’s Name: A Silent Dialogue among the Shona People.” Journal of Folklore Research 41 (1): 85–98. https://doi.org/10.2979/JFR.2004.41.1.85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jfr.2004.0006

Taub, S. F. 2006. Language from the Body: Iconicity and Metaphor in American Sign Language. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

Thompson, R., K. Emmorey, and R. Kluender. 2006. “The Relationship between Eye Gaze and Verb Agreement in ASL: An Eye-Tracking Study.” Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 24 (2): 571–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-005-1829-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-005-1829-y

Tolar, T. D., A. R. Lederberg, S. Gokhale, and M. Tomasello. 2008. “The Development of the Ability to Recognize the Meaning of Iconic Signs.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 13 (2): 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enm045. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enm045

Stewart, D. A., J. D. Schein, and B. E. Cartwright. 1998. Sign Language Interpreting: Exploring Its Arts and Science. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Toporov, V. N. 1962. “Iz oblasti teoreticheskoj toponomastiki.” Voprosy jazykoznanija 11: 8–16.

Trengove, E., and I. R. Jandrell. 2015. “Lightning Myths in Southern Africa.” Natural Hazards 77 (1): 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1579-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1579-4