Artificial Intelligence, Targeted Communication, and the Recruitment of Children in Armed Conflict

Arthur van Coller

doi:10.25159/2521-2583/21310

Authors

Arthur van Coller STADIO Higher Education https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3362-6707

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25159/2521-2583/21310

Keywords:

child soldiers, children associated with armed conflict, digital recruitment, algorithmic targeting

Abstract

Children have been exploited for recruitment as soldiers throughout history. The traditional methods whereby children are inducted into recruitment, such as ideological immersion or coercion in physical spaces, are, however, progressively being replaced by AI-enabled digital manipulation. Armed groups now deploy curated digital echo chambers, psychologically tuned messaging across social media platforms, gamified war content in online gaming environments, and short-form video applications to facilitate the recruitment of children. These strategies exploit children’s digital identities, emotional vulnerabilities, and algorithmically amplified exposure to conflict narratives. The aim of this article is thus to examine the transformation of child recruitment enabled by artificial intelligence and digital technologies, with particular attention to the roles of social media and algorithmic targeting. It critically analyses prevailing legal frameworks, highlighting significant gaps in their regulation of digital recruitment methods. It addresses the responsibility of technology companies and the need for updated legal and policy responses. Key recommendations focus on legislative reform, multi-sector collaboration, and the deployment of AI-driven detection tools to strengthen prevention and protection for children in conflict-affected digital spaces.

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United Nations Security Council, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General UN Doc S/2022/493 (2022).

United Nations Security Council, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General UN Doc S/2023/363 (2023).

United Nations Security Council, Report of the Secretary-General on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone UN Doc S/2000/915 (4 October 2000).

United Nations Security Council, Res 1261 (1999) UN Doc S/RES/1261.

United Nations Security Council, Res 1314 (2000) UN Doc S/RES/1314.

United Nations Security Council, Res 1379 (2001) UN Doc S/RES/1379.

United Nations Security Council, Res 1460 (2003) UN Doc S/RES/1460.

United Nations Security Council, Res 1612 (2005) UN Doc S/RES/1612.

United Nations Security Council, Res 1882 (2009) UN Doc S/RES/1882.

United Nations Security Council, Res 2068 (2012) UN Doc S/RES/2068.

United Nations Security Council, Res 2143 (2014) UN Doc S/RES/2143.

United Nations Security Council, Res 2225 (2015) UN Doc S/RES/2225.

United Nations Security Council, Res 2427 (2018) UN Doc S/RES/2427.

United Nations Security Council, Res 2611 (2021) UN Doc S/RES/2611.

United Nations, ‘Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ UN Doc A/RES/70/1 (2015).

United States Department of Homeland Security, ‘Increasing Threat of Deep Fake Identities’ <https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/increasing_threats_of_deepfake_identities_0.pdf>

Van Coller A, Child Marriage—The Denial of Autonomy by Conferring the Status of Marriage on a Child in Probert R and Thompson S (eds), Research Handbook on Law: Marriage and Cohabitation <https://www.e-elgar.com/shop/gbp/research-handbook-on-marriage-cohabitation-and-the-law-9781802202649.html>

Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, ‘A Credible List: Recommendations for the 2023 Annual Report on Children and Armed Conflict’ (2023) <https://watchlist.org/publications/>

Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, ‘Community-Based Child Protection Mechanisms’ (2022) <https://watchlist.org/publications/>

Warburton D, ‘British ISIS Leader “Using Facebook to Recruit Terrorists to Target the UK”’ Mirror (12 March 2016) <http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/british-isis-leader-usingfacebook-7545645>

Webster T, ‘Babes with Arms: International Law and Child Soldiers’ (2007) 39 George Washington International Law Review.

Weimann G, ‘The Emerging Role of Social Media in the Recruitment of Foreign Fighters’ in De Guttry A, Capone F, Paulussen C (eds) Foreign Fighters under International Law and Beyond (TMC Asser Press 2016) <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-099-2_6> DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-099-2_6

Weimann G, Terrorism in Cyberspace: The Next Generation (Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Columbia University Press 2015).

Wells SL, ‘Crimes Against Child Soldiers in Armed Conflict Situations: Application and Limits of International Humanitarian Law’ (2004) 12 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law.

Whitman S and Holland S, ‘Understanding the Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers as an Early Warning Indicator’ (The Roméo Dallaire Child Soldiers Initiative 2015) <https://static1.squarespace.com/static/632482dc1b943212b681b181/t/6334678c633bd9223176379e/1664378768250/Understanding_the_Use_of_Child_Solders_Early_Warning-min.pdf>

Winkler C and Wiegold L, ‘Gaming the System: The Use of Gaming-Adjacent Communication, Game and Mod Platforms by Extremist Actors’ (10 June 2024) <https://extremismandgaming.org/gaming-the-system-the-use-of-gaming-adjacent-communication-game-and-mod-platforms-by-extremist-actors/>

Xbox, ‘Manage Xbox Online Safety and Privacy Settings’ (2023) <https://support.xbox.com/en-GB/help/family-online-safety/online-safety/manage-online-safety-and-privacy-settings-xbox-one>

Yee N, ‘Befriending Ogres and Wood-Elves—Understanding Relationship Formation in MMORPGs’ (2002) <http://www.nickyee.com/hub/relationships/home.html>

Cases

Prosecutor v Katanga (Decision on Confirmation of Charges, ICC-01/04-01/07-717, 30 September 2008).

Prosecutor v Joseph Kony, Vincent Otti, Raska Lukwiya, Okot Odhiambo, Dominic Ongwen (Warrant of Arrest for Joseph Kony, Case No ICC-02/04-01/05 on 8 July 2005, 27 September 2005) <https://www.icc-cpi.int/uganda/kony>

Prosecutor v Lubanga (Decision on Confirmation of Charges, CC-01/04-01/06-803, 29 January 2007).

Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Judgment pursuant to Art 74 of the Statute, ICC-01/04-01/06-2842, Trial Chamber I, 14 March 2012).

Prosecutor v Norman (Decision on Preliminary Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment) Case No. SCSL-04-14-AR72(E), Special Court for Sierra Leone, 31 May 2004).

Prosecutor v Charles Ghankay Taylor (Judgment, SCSL-03-1-T, Special Court for Sierra Leone, 18 May 2012).

Conventions

African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 11 July 1990, entered into force 29 November 1999) OAU Doc CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990).

African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala Convention) (adopted 22 October 2009, entered into force 6 December 2012).

Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3.

Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137.

Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Second Geneva Convention) (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 85.

Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (First Geneva Convention) (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 31.

Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention) (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 287.

Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention) (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 135.

International Labour Organization, Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (No 182) (adopted 17 June 1999, entered into force 19 November 2000).

Maputo Declaration on the Use of Children as Soldiers (adopted 22 April 1999, Maputo, Mozambique).

Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (adopted 25 May 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) 2173 UNTS 222.

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 3.

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 609.

Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 31 January 1967, entered into force 4 October 1967) 606 UNTS 267.

Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol) (adopted 11 July 2003, Maputo, entered into force 25 November 2005).

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into force 25 December 2003).

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (adopted 17 July 1998, entered into force 1 July 2002, last amended 2010) 2187 UNTS 3.

Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone (established 16 January 2002, UN Security Council Resolution 1315 (2000)).