Ophir and the Nusantara

Tracing Solomon’s Maritime Trade in Southeast Asia

Abstract

This article reassesses the possible identification of the biblical land of Ophir with the Nusantara—particularly Sumatra and Borneo—by foregrounding the triad of commodities most closely associated with Ophir in the Hebrew Bible: gold, apes, and peacocks (1 Kgs 9:28; 10:11, 22; 2 Chr 8:18). Using an interdisciplinary method that integrates biblical studies, historical linguistics, zoology, and maritime history, the study treats these goods as concrete indicators of long‑distance interaction with maritime Southeast Asia. Special attention is given to the rare Hebrew term tukkîyîm (“peacocks”), a hapax legomenon—a word occurring only once in the Hebrew Bible—whose likely South/Southeast Asian etymology aligns with the distribution of the green peafowl (Pavo muticus). The article also examines the Phoenician maritime network and the three-year cycle of Solomon’s fleet (1 Kgs 10:22) to evaluate the plausibility of long-range trade. While ancient authors such as Josephus place Ophir in “India,” the term in antiquity could encompass regions reaching to the Far East, plausibly including the Indonesian archipelago. By situating the Nusantara within Old Testament geography, the study challenges West-centric assumptions and presents a plausible, though not definitive, Southeast Asian horizon for Ophir. These findings enrich biblical interpretation and contextual theology for the Global South, underscoring the universal scope of God’s redemptive plan.