Perceptions of Leadership and Culture in Private and Public Organisations: A Sectoral Comparison Over Five Years and 12 Independent Studies
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/2664-3731/10741Keywords:
sectoral comparison, private sector leadership, public sector leadershipAbstract
Leadership is regarded as essential in life, in society and in organisations. It is for this reason that this article studies leadership, in particular employees’ perceptions of leadership, with regard to social exchange and institutional (behavioural) isomorphism theories, acknowledging the contextual differences between the private and the public sectors. The purpose of the article is to compare the perceptions of employees from organisations in the private and the public sector based on 12 independent cross-sectional studies (conducted over five years). Eight leadership styles were examined, namely, authentic, empowering, ethical, servant, transformational, transactional, and ubuntu or Afrocentric leadership, and leader–member exchange. One of the studies included a measurement of organisational culture, to be brought in relation with leadership. The results of this study indicate that the employees in the private sector have a significantly better perception of leadership compared to those in the public sector (except for transactional leadership). It was further found that the two sectors differ significantly with regard to the perceived cultures, and that the cultural types are related to the perception of leadership. Recommendations are not only made in general, but also with regard to improving the perception of leadership (which has an impact on employee behaviour, attitudes and organisational performance) in the public sector, based on the findings of this study.
Metrics
References
Altwater, L. E., & Wright, W. J. (1996). Power and transformational and transactional leadership in public and private organizations. International Journal of Public Administration, 19(6), 963–989. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900699608525127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01900699608525127
Amundsen, S., & Martinsen, Ø. L. (2014). Empowering leadership: Construct clarification, conceptualization, and validation of a new scale. Leadership Quarterly, 25, 487–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.009
Arnold, J. A., Arad, S., Rhoades, J. A., & Drasgow, F. (2000). The empowering leadership questionnaire: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(3), 249–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:3<249::AID-JOB10>3.0.CO;2-%23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:3<249::AID-JOB10>3.0.CO;2-#
Avolio, J. B., Bass, M. B., & Jung, D. I. (1999) Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 72, 441–462. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317999166789 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/096317999166789
Avolio, B., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current theories, research and future directions. Management Department Faculty Publications, 60(1), 421–449. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.
Batistic, S., Cerne, M., & Vogel, B. (2017). Just how multilevel is leadership research? A document co-citation analysis 1980–2013 on leadership constructs and outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), 86–193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.10.007
Bedi, A., Alpaslan, C. M., & Green, S. (2016). A meta-analytic review of ethical leadership outcomes and moderators. Journal of Business Ethics, 139, 517–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2625-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2625-1
Belias, D., & Koustelios, A. (2015). Leadership style, job satisfaction and organisational culture in the Greek banking organisation. Journal of Management Research, 15(2), 101–110.
Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
Bourantas, D., & Papalexandris, N. (1993). Differences in leadership behaviour and influence between public and private organizations in Greece. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 4(4), 859–871. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585199300000061
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 595–616. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004
Brown, M. E, Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 97, 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
Carmeli, A., Atwater, L., & Levi, A. (2011). How leadership enhances employees' knowledge sharing: The intervening roles of relational and organizational identification. Journal of Technology Transfer, 36(3), 257–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-010-9154-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-010-9154-y
Corsie, T. (2018). Leading great teams in the public sector. UK: Iken. Retrieved 11 February 2021 from https://www.iken.co.uk/blog/leading-great-teams-in-the-public-sector/
Dansereau, F., Graen, G. B., & Haga, W. (1975). A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership in formal organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 46–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(75)90005-7
De Hoogh, A. H. B., & Den Hartog, D. N. (2008). Ethical and despotic leadership, relationships with leader's social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates’ optimism: A multi-method study. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002
Den Hartog, D. N., & Belschak, F. D. (2012). Work engagement and Machiavellianism in the ethical leadership process. Journal of Business Ethics, 107, 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1296-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1296-4
DiMaggio, P., & Powell, W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organization fields. American Sociological Review, 48, 147–160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101
Eustace, A., & Martins, N. (2014). The role of leadership in shaping organisational climate: an example from the fast-moving consumer goods industry: Original research. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 1, 1. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1112 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1112
Fong, K. H., & Snape, E. (2015). Empowering leadership, psychological empowerment and employee outcomes: Testing a multi-level mediating model. British Journal of Management, 26, 126–138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12048
George, W. (2003). Authentic leadership: Rediscovering the secrets of creating lasting value. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Graen, G. B., & Cashman, J. (1975). A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: A developmental approach. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers (pp. 143–166). Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. In B. Staw & L. L. Cumming (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 175–208). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader–member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level, multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5
Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.
Greguras, G. J., & Ford, J. M. (2006). An examination of the multidimensionality of supervisor and subordinate perceptions of leader–member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 433–465. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X53859 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X53859
Grobler, A. (2017). The measurement of ethical leadership from an et(h)ic position. African Journal of Business and Economic Research, 12(2/3), 177–209. https://doi.org/10.31920/1750-4562/2017/v12n2_3a6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/1750-4562/2017/v12n2_3a6
Grobler, A., & Flotman, A. P. (2020). The validation of the servant leadership scale. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 46(0), a1754. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v46i0.1754 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v46i0.1754
Grobler, A., & Holtzhausen, M. M. E. (2018). Supervisory trust to be earned: The role of ethical leadership mediated by person-organisational fit. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 21(1), a1920. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1920 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1920
Grobler, A., & Mathafena, R. B. (2020). Assessing the dimensionality of three LMX instruments within a diverse cultural and linguistic context. Psihologija. https://doi.org/10.2298/PSI191011019G DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/PSI191011019G
Grobler, A., & Powell, K. (2018). Enhancing psychological capital: The impact of authentic leadership and passion for work in a South African context. Journal of Contemporary Management, 15(1), 655–676.
Grobler, A., & Singh, V. (2018). Leadership in southern Africa: A regional Afrocentric hierarchical taxonomy. Insight on Africa, 10(2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0975087818772236 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0975087818772236
Hamstra, M., Van Yperen, N., Wise, B., & Sassenberg, K. (2014). Transformational and transactional leadership and followers’ achievement goals. Journal of Business & Psychology, 29, 413–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9322-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9322-9
Hansen, J. R., & Villadsen, A. R. (2010). Comparing public and private managers' leadership styles: Understanding the role of job context. International Public Management Journal, 13(3), 247–274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2010.503793
Hararath, G. (2017). A comparative study of leadership styles in select public and private sector organizations. Finance India, 2, 575–578.
Helfrich, C. D., Li, Y., Mohr, D. C., Meterko, M., & Sales, A. E. 2007. Assessing an organizational culture instrument based on the competing values framework: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Implementation Science, 2(13), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-2-13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-2-13
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, H. K. (1969). Life cycle theory of leadership. Training Develop Journal, 23(5), 26–34.
House, R. J. (1971). A path goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(3), 321–338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2391905
Howell, J. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational leadership, transactional leadership, locus of control and support of innovation: Key predictors of consolidated-business-unit performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(6), 891–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.891 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.891
IBM. (2017). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
Ilies, R., Morgenson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D. (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader-follower outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 373–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002
Jensen, U. T., Andersen, L. B., Bro, L. L., et al. (2019). Conceptualizing and measuring transformational and transactional leadership. Administration & Society, 51(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399716667157 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399716667157
Kim, H. (2014). Transformational leadership, organizational clan culture, organizational affective commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior: A case of South Korea’s public sector. Public Organization Review, 14, 397–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-013-0225-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-013-0225-z
Kimberly, J. R., & Quinn, R. E. (1984). Managing organizational transitions. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.
Khuntia, R., & Suar, D. (2004). A scale to assess ethical leadership of Indian private and public sector managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 49, 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000013853.80287.da DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000013853.80287.da
Kuhnert, R., & Lewis, P. (1987). Transactional and transformational leadership: A constructive/developmental analysis. Academy of Management Review, 12, 648–657. https://doi.org/10.2307/258070 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1987.4306717
Laub, J. (2004). Defining servant leadership: a recommended typology for servant leadership studies. Proceedings of Servant Leadership Research Roundtable, 2–3 August 2004, Regent University, School of Leadership Studies, Virginia Beach.
Liden, R. C., & Maslyn, J. M. (1998). Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management, 24, 43–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(99)80053-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(99)80053-1
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Meuser, J. D., Hu, J., Wu, J., & Liao, C. (2015). Servant leadership: Validation of a short form of the SL-28. Leadership Quarterly, 26, 254–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.12.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.12.002
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Zhao, H., & Henderson, D. (2008). Servant leadership: development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 161–177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.01.006
Mbigi, L. (2004). Leadership: In search of an African spirit. Business in Africa, 38–41.
Mbiti, J. (1989). African religions and philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Heinemann Educational.
Metz, T. (2014). Just the beginning for ubuntu: Reply to Matolino and Kwindingwi. South African Journal of Philosophy, 33(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/02580136.2014.892680 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02580136.2014.892680
Msila, V. (2014). African leadership models in education: Leading institutions through ubuntu. Anthropologist, 18(3), 1105–1114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2014.11891593
Nikezić, S., Puri, S., & Puri, J. (2012). Transactional and transformational leadership: development through changes. International Journal for Quality Research, 6(3), 285–296.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Odumeru, J. A., & Feanyi, G. O. (2013). Transformational vs. transactional leadership theories: Evidence in literature. International Review of Management and Business Research, 2(2), 355–361.
Orazi, D. C., Turrini, A., & Valotti, G. (2013). Public sector leadership: New perspectives for research and practice. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 79(3), 486–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852313489945 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852313489945
Ospina, S. M. (2016). Collective leadership and context in public administration: Bridging public leadership research and leadership studies. Public Administration Review, 77(2), 275–287. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12706
Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for Windows (5th ed.). Open University Press.
Parliament of South Africa. (2021, March 24). State of the nation address by President Cyril Ramaphosa. Retrieved from https://www.parliament.gov.za/project-event-details/1283
Parris, D. L., & Peachey, J. W. (2013). A systematic literature review of servant leadership theory in organizational contexts. Journal of Business Ethics, 113, 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1322-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1322-6
Pereira, C. M., & Gomes, J. F. (2012). The strength of human resource practices and transformational leadership: impact on organisational performance. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(20), 4301–4318. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.667434 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2012.667434
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1996). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7
Quinn, R. E. (1988). Beyond rational management: Mastering the paradoxes and competing demands of high performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Quinn, R. E., & Rohrbaugh, J. (1981). A competing values approach to organizational effectiveness. Public Productivity Review, 122–140. https://doi.org/10.2307/3380029 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3380029
Quinn, R. E., & Spreitzer, G. M. (1991). The psychometrics of the competing values culture instrument and an analysis of the impact of organizational culture on quality of life. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 5, 115–142.
Resick, C. J., Hargis, M. B., Shao, P., & Dust, S. B. (2013). Ethical leadership, moral equity judgements, and discretionary workplace behaviour. Human Relations, 66(7), 951–972. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726713481633 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726713481633
Rossouw, D., & Van Vuuren, L. (2013). Business ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schabrack, M. J. (2007). Changing organizational culture. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Shamir, B., & Eilam, G. (2005). What’s your story? A life–stories approach to authentic leadership development. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005
Sharma, P. N., & Kirkman, B. L. (2015). Leveraging leaders: A literature review and future lines of inquiry for empowering leadership research. Group & Organization Management, 40(2), 193–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115574906 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115574906
Shin, Y., Sung, S. Y., Choi, J. N., & Kim, M. S. (2015). Top management ethical leadership and firm performance: Mediating role of ethical and procedural justice climate. Journal of Business Ethics, 129, 43–57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2144-5
Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture (2nd ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey.
Uhl-Bien, M., Maslyn, J., & Ospina, S. M. (2012). The nature of relational leadership: A multi-theoretical lenses on leadership relationships and process. In D. V. Day & J. Antonakis (Eds.), The nature of leadership (2nd ed., pp. 289–330). London: Sage.
Uhl-Bien, M., Riggio, R. E., Lowe, K. B., & Carsten, M. K. (2014). Followership theory: A review and research agenda. Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.007
Van Dierendonck, D., Stam, D., Boersma, P., De Windt, N., & Alkema, J. (2014). Same difference? Exploring the differential mechanisms linking servant leadership and transformational leadership to follower outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 25, 544–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.014
Wallace, M., & Tomlinson, M. (2010). Contextualizing leader dynamics: How public service leaders endeavour to build influence. Leadership, 6(1), 21–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715009354238 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715009354238
Walumbwa, F., Avolio, B., Gardner, W., Wernsing, T., & Peterson, S. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Management Department Faculty Publications. Paper 24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307308913
Wong, P. T. P., & Page, D. (2003). Servant leadership: An opponent process model and the revised servant leadership profile. Servant Leadership Roundtable. Retrieved 15 May 2019 from http://www.drpaulwong.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Wong-Servant-Leadership-An-Opponent-Process-Model.pdf
Wong, S. I. (2018). The thin line between empowering and laissez-faire leadership: An expectancy-match perspective. BI Norwegian Business School Journal of Management, 44(2), 757–783. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315574597
Yasir, M., & Mohamad, N. A. (2016). Ethics and morality: Comparing ethical leadership with servant, authentic and transformational leadership styles. International Review of Management and Marketing, 6(4), 310–316.
Yawson, R. (2017). Leadership development in South Africa. In A. Ardichvili & K. Dirani (Eds.), Leadership development in emerging market economies (pp. 93–109). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58003-0_6
Yukl, G. (2012). Effective leadership behavior: What we know and what questions need more attention. Academy of Management Perspectives, 26(4), 66–85. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2012.0088 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2012.0088
Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). England: Pearson Education.
Yukl, G., Gordon, A., & Taber, T. (2002). A hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behavior: Integrating a half century of behavior research. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/107179190200900102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107179190200900102
Yukl, G., Mahsud, R., Hassan, S., & Prussia, G. E. (2013). An improved measure of ethical leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(1), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051811429352 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051811429352
Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. (2010). Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: the influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.48037118 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.48037118
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Accepted 2022-05-23
Published 2023-01-17