Traditional Masculinity and Health Literacy: A Study of Young Adult Men Attending a Primary Healthcare Setting in the Western Cape, South Africa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/2412-8457/18979Keywords:
health literacy, Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF), South Africa, traditional masculinity, young adult menAbstract
This study examined the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology (TMI), health literacy (HL), and the relationship between TMI and HL among young adult men attending a peri-urban primary healthcare clinic in the Western Cape, South Africa. Using a quantitative cross-sectional design, 407 cisgender young men (aged 18–25 years, M = 21.8, SD = 1.5) completed the Male Role Norms Inventory–Short Form, Health Literacy Questionnaire, and a socio-demographic questionnaire. Descriptive analyses revealed the highest endorsement of traditional masculinity norms related to self-reliance and toughness, with dominance being endorsed the least. Some socio-demographic differences in TMI endorsement were observed. Participants who self-identified as Coloured and those who were of Indian descent endorsed TMI more strongly than participants who identified as Black and White. Heterosexual participants also endorsed TMI much more significantly than participants who were sexual minorities. HL ranged from average to above average, with the lowest levels on feeling understood and supported by healthcare providers and the highest endorsement on understanding health information. Significant negative correlations were found between TMI, the ability to find health information, and understanding health information. These results suggest that TMI may influence health literacy, particularly in relation to seeking and applying health information.
References
Arnett, J. J. 1998. “Learning to Stand Alone: The Contemporary American Transition to Adulthood in Cultural and Historical Context.” Human Development 41 (5/6): 295–315. https://doi.org/10.1159/000022591. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000022591
Arnett, J. J. 2000. “Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens through the Twenties.” American Psychologist 55 (5): 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469
Bantjes, J., A. Kagee, and B. Meissner. 2017. “Young Men in Post-Apartheid South Africa Talk about Masculinity and Suicide Prevention.” South African Journal of Psychology 47 (2): 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246316665990. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246316665990
Barsell, D. J., R. S. Everhart, S. A. Miadich, and M. A. Trujillo. 2018. “Examining Health Behaviors, Health Literacy, and Self-Efficacy in College Students with Chronic Conditions.” American Journal of Health Education 49 (5): 305–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2018.1486758. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2018.1486758
Berger, J. M., R. Levant, K. K. McMillan, W. Kelleher, and A. Sellers. 2005. “Impact of Gender Role Conflict, Traditional Masculinity Ideology, Alexithymia, and Age on Men’s Attitudes toward Psychological Help Seeking.” Psychology of Men and Masculinity 6 (1): 73–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.6.1.73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.6.1.73
Boateng, M. A., P. Agyei-Baffour, S. Angel, and U. Enemark. 2020. “Translation, Cultural Adaptation, and Psychometric Properties of the Ghanaian Language (Akan; Asante Twi) Version of the Health Literacy Questionnaire.” BMC Health Services Research 20 (1): 1064. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05932-w. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05932-w
Boonzaier, F. A. 2023. “Spectacularizing Narratives on Femicide in South Africa: A Decolonial Feminist Analysis.” Current Sociology 71 (1): 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/00113921221097157. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00113921221097157
Chinovhiringa, K., Z. Samson, and R. Chinovhiringa. 2023. “Endorsement of Traditional Masculinity Ideology among Students at a State University in Zimbabwe.” Zimbabwe Journal of Health Sciences 3 (1): 121–134. https://www.ahpcz.co.zw/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/ZJHS-Vol-3-Issue-1-2023-1-1.pdf.
David, D., and R. Brannon, eds. 1976. The Forty-Nine Percent Majority: The Male Sex Role. New York: Random House.
De Lannoy, A., L. Graham, L. Patel, and M. Leibbrandt. 2018. What Drives Youth Unemployment and What Interventions Help? A Systematic Overview of the Evidence and a Theory of Change; High‐Level Overview Report. REDI3X3. https://www.uj.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/youth-unemployment-report-final-interactive.pdf.
De Visser, R. O., and E. J. McDonnell. 2013. “‘Man Points’: Masculine Capital and Young Men’s Health.” Health Psychology 32 (1): 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029045. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029045
Elsworth, G. R., A. Beauchamp, and R. H. Osborne. 2016. “Measuring Health Literacy in Community Agencies: A Bayesian Study of the Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of the Health Literacy Questionnaire (HLQ).” BMC Health Services Research 16 (508): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1754-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1754-2
Evans, K. 2002. “Taking Control of Their Lives? Agency in Young Adult Transitions in England and the New Germany.” Journal of Youth Studies 5 (3): 245–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/1367626022000005965. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1367626022000005965
Everitt-Penhale, B., and K. Ratele. 2015. “Rethinking ‘Traditional Masculinity’ as Constructed, Multiple, and ≠ Hegemonic Masculinity.” South African Review of Sociology 46 (2): 4–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/21528586.2015.1025826. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21528586.2015.1025826
Francis, D., and E. Webster. 2019. “Poverty and Inequality in South Africa: Critical Reflections.” In “Inequality in South Africa,” edited by D. Francis and E. Webster, special issue, Development Southern Africa 36 (6): 788–802. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2019.1666703. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2019.1666703
Galdas, P. M., F. Cheater, and P. Marshall. 2005. “Men and Health Help‐Seeking Behaviour: Literature Review.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 49 (6): 616–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03331.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03331.x
Gerber, M., S. Le Berre, and D. Buiten. 2023. “Young Masculinities and Violence in South Africa: Reflections on the Literature.” In Young People, Violence and Strategic Interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by K. Naidoo, O. Adeagbo, and X. Li, 65–81. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20679-5_4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20679-5_4
Gerdes, Z. T., and R. F. Levant. 2018. “Complex Relationships among Masculine Norms and Health/Well-Being Outcomes: Correlation Patterns of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory Subscales.” American Journal of Men’s Health 12 (2): 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988317745910. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988317745910
Gough, B., and S. Robertson. 2017. “A Review of Research on Men’s Physical Health.” In The Psychology of Men and Masculinities, edited by R. F. Levant and Y. J. Wong, 197–227. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0000023-008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0000023-008
Harris, B., J. Goudge, J. E. Ataguba, D. McIntyre, N. Nxumalo, S. Jikwana, and M. Chersich. 2011. “Inequities in Access to Health Care in South Africa.” Journal of Public Health Policy 32: S102–S123. https://doi.org/10.1057/jphp.2011.35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/jphp.2011.35
Janse van Rensburg, Z. 2020. “Levels of Health Literacy and English Comprehension in Patients Presenting to South African Primary Healthcare Facilities.” PHCFM: African Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine 12 (1): a2047. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v12i1.2047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v12i1.2047
Jenkins, D. L., R. C. McDermott, and R. F. Levant. 2024. “Adhering, Rejecting, and Conflicting: A Latent Profile Analysis of Emerging Adult Men’s Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Gender Role Conflict.” Psychology of Men and Masculinities. Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/men0000515. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000515
Jewkes, R., K. Dunkle, M. P. Koss, J. Levin, M. Nduna, N. Jama, and Y. Sikweyiya. 2006. “Rape Perpetration by Young, Rural South African Men: Prevalence, Patterns and Risk Factors.” Social Science and Medicine 63 (11): 2949–2961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.07.027. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.07.027
Jewkes, R., Y. Sikweyiya, R. Morrell, and K. Dunkle. 2009. Understanding Men’s Health and Use of Violence: Interface of Rape and HIV in South Africa (Research Report). Pretoria: Medical Research Council.
Kheswa, J. G. 2017. “The Impact of Unemployment on the Sexual Behaviour of Male Youth in Quzini, Eastern Cape, South Arica: A Qualitative Study.” The Oriental Anthropologist: A Bi-Annual International Journal of the Science of Man 17 (1): 59–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0976343020170104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0976343020170104
Khumalo, S., M. Taylor, T. Makusha, and M. Mabaso. 2020. “Intersectionality of Cultural Norms and Sexual Behaviours: A Qualitative Study of Young Black Male Students at a University in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.” Reproductive Health 17 (188): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-020-01041-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-020-01041-3
Langa, M., C. Kane, and T. E. Kabongo. 2024. “Celebrating 30 Years of Masculinities Scholarship in the South African Journal of Psychology.” South African Journal of Psychology 54 (4): 554-566. https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463241285245. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463241285245
Levant, R. F. 2011. “Research in the Psychology of Men and Masculinity Using the Gender Role Strain Paradigm as a Framework.” American Psychologist 66 (8): 765–776. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025034. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025034
Levant, R. F., R. J. Hall, and T. J. Rankin. 2013. “Male Role Norms Inventory–Short Form (MRNI-SF): Development, Confirmatory Factor Analytic Investigation of Structure, and Measurement Invariance across Gender.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 60 (2): 228–238. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0031545. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031545
Levant, R. F., J. Martin-Fernandez, R. C. McDermott, and E. H. Jr. Thompson. 2022. “Measurement Invariance and Comparison of Mean Scores by Age Cohort of Two Versions of the Male Role Norms Inventory.” Men and Masculinities 25 (3): 438–458. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X211017620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X211017620
Levant, R. F., and K. Richmond. 2008. “A Review of Research on Masculinity Ideologies Using the Male Role Norms Inventory.” The Journal of Men’s Studies 15 (2): 130–146. http://dx.doi.org/10.3149/jms.1502.130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3149/jms.1502.130
Levant, R. F., and K. Richmond. 2016. “The Gender Role Strain Paradigm and Masculinity Ideologies.” In APA Handbook of Men and Masculinities, edited by Y. J. Wong and S. R. Wester, 23–49. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14594-002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/14594-002
Lloyd, N., and M. Leibbrandt. 2014. “New Evidence on Subjective Well-Being and the Definition of Unemployment in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa 31 (1): 85–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2013.864513. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2013.864513
Luyt, R. 2012. “Representation of Masculinities and Race in South African Television Advertising: A Content Analysis.” Journal of Gender Studies 21 (1): 35–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2012.639176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2012.639176
Marcell, A. V., S. E. Eftim, F. L. Sonenstein, and J. H. Pleck. 2011. “Associations of Family and Peer Experiences with Masculinity Attitude Trajectories at the Individual and Group Level in Adolescent and Young Adult Males.” Men and Masculinities 14 (5): 565–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X11409363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X11409363
Martin, J., and K. Govender. 2013. “‘Indenturing the Body’: Traditional Masculine Role Norms, Body Image Discrepancy, and Muscularity in a Sample of South African Indian Boys.” Culture, Society and Masculinities 5 (1): 21–45. https://doi.org/10.3149/CSM.0501.21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3149/CSM.0501.21
Martin, J. H., and C. H. Van Wijk. 2021. “The Endorsement of Traditional Masculine Ideology by South African Navy Men: A Research Report.” The Journal of Men’s Studies 29 (1): 106–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060826520933583. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1060826520933583
Martin, J. H., C. H. Van Wijk, N. Coetzee, and C. Hayes. 2025. “Traditional Masculinity and Attitudes toward Transgender People among South African Navy Men.” Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies 8 (1): 466–483. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.393
Masters, S. L., and A. R. Hayes. 2022. “Pathways among Masculinity, Femininity, and Health Behaviors in Emerging Adulthood.” Current Psychology 41 (5): 2848–2859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00792-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00792-3
McDermott, R. C., K. M. Brasil, N. C. Borgogna, J. L. Barinas, A. T. Berry, and R. F. Levant. 2021. “The Politics of Men’s and Women’s Traditional Masculinity Ideology in the United States.” Psychology of Men and Masculinities 22 (4): 627–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000367. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000367
McDermott, R. C., K. M. Brasil, N. C. Borgogna, J. Barinas, and R. F. Levant. 2022. “Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Feminist Attitudes: The Role of Identity Foreclosure.” Sex Roles 87 (3): 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01302-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01302-4
McDermott, R. C., R. F. Levant, J. H. Hammer, R. J. Hall, D. K. McKelvey, and Z. Jones. 2017. “Further Examination of the Factor Structure of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF): Measurement Considerations for Women, Men of Color, and Gay Men.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 64 (6): 724–738. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cou0000225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000225
McDermott, R. C., and J. P. Schwartz. 2013. “Toward a Better Understanding of Emerging Adult Men’s Gender Role Journeys: Differences in Age, Education, Race, Relationship Status, and Sexual Orientation.” Psychology of Men and Masculinity 14 (2): 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028538. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028538
Mehta, C. M., J. J. Arnett, C. G. Palmer, and L. J. Nelson. 2020. “Established Adulthood: A New Conception of Ages 30 to 45.” American Psychologist 75 (4): 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000600. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000600
Milner, A., M. Shields, and T. King. 2019. “The Influence of Masculine Norms and Mental Health on Health Literacy among Men: Evidence from the Ten to Men Study.” American Journal of Men’s Health 13 (5): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988319873532. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988319873532
Moolman, B. 2017. “Negotiating Masculinities and Authority through Intersecting Discourses of Tradition and Modernity in South Africa.” NORMA: International Journal for Masculinity Studies 12 (1): 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/18902138.2017.1293398. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/18902138.2017.1293398
Mostert, S. N., J. Martin, and C. Van Wijk. 2025. “The Relationship between Health Literacy and Health Behaviours amongst a South African Navy Sample.” International Maritime Health 76 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5603/imh.101675.
Mthembu, J. 2015. “Negotiating Masculinities: Studying Risk Behaviours Associated with Performances of ‘Coloured’ Masculinities.” PhD diss., University of Cape Town. https://open.uct.ac.za/items/fdd971b8-e689-4b30-bbde-5f56364cb604.
Muparamoto, N., and K. Moen. 2022. “Gay, ngochani, ordaa, gumutete and mwana waEriza: ‘Globalised’ and ‘Localised’ Identity Labels among Same-Sex Attracted Men in Harare, Zimbabwe.” Culture, Health and Sexuality: An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care 24 (1): 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2020.1814967. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2020.1814967
Mursa, R., C. Patterson, G. McErlean, and E. Halcomb. 2024. “Understanding Health Literacy in Men: A Cross-Sectional Survey.” BMC Public Health 24 (1804): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19223-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19223-0
Norona, J. C., T. M. Preddy, and D. P. Welsh. 2015. “How Gender Shapes Emerging Adulthood.” In The Oxford Handbook of Emerging Adulthood, edited by J. J. Arnett, 62–86. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795574.013.13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795574.013.13
Nutbeam, D., and J. E. Lloyd. 2021. “Understanding and Responding to Health Literacy as a Social Determinant of Health.” Annual Review of Public Health 42 (1): 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102529. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102529
O’Brien, R., K. Hunt, and G. Hart. 2005. “It’s Caveman Stuff, But That Is to a Certain Extent How Guys Still Operate’: Men’s Accounts of Masculinity and Help Seeking.” Social Science and Medicine 61 (3): 503–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.008
O’Neil, J. M. 2008. “Summarizing 25 Years of Research on Men’s Gender Role Conflict Using the Gender Role Conflict Scale: New Research Paradigms and Clinical Implications.” The Counselling Psychologist 36 (3): 358–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000008317057. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000008317057
O’Neil, J. M., and M. R. Carroll. 1988. “A Gender Role Workshop Focused on Sexism, Gender Role Conflict, and the Gender Role Journey.” Journal of Counseling and Development 67 (3): 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1988.tb02091.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1988.tb02091.x
Oliffe, J. L., E. Rossnagel, M. T. Kelly, J. L. Bottorff, C. Seaton, and F. Darroch. 2020. “Men’s Health Literacy: A Review and Recommendations.” Health Promotion International 35 (5): 1037–1051. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daz077. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daz077
Osborne, R. H., C. C. Cheng, S. Nolte, et al. 2022. “Health Literacy Measurement: Embracing Diversity in a Strengths-Based Approach to Promote Health and Equity, and Avoid Epistemic Injustice.” BMJ Global Health 7: e009623. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009623
Osborne, R. H., R. W. Batterham, G. R. Elsworth, M. Hawkins, and R. Buchbinder. 2013. “The Grounded Psychometric Development and Initial Validation of the Health Literacy Questionnaire (HLQ).” BMC Public Health 13 (658): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-658. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-658
Osborne, R. H., R. W. Batterham, G. R. Elsworth, M. Hawkins, and R. Buchbinder. 2014. “Psychometric Properties of the Health Literacy Questionnaire (HLQ) among Older Adults Who Present to the Emergency Department After a Fall: A Rasch Analysis.” BMC Health Services Research 14 (1): 475.
Pillay, S. R. 2023. “An Exploratory Survey of the Lived Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual South Africans of Indian Descent: Towards Intersectional Insights.” South African Journal of Psychology 53 (1): 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463221096988. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463221096988
Pleck, J. H. 1995. “The Gender Role Strain Paradigm: An Update.” In A New Psychology of Men, edited by R. F. Levant and W. S. Pollack, 11–32. New York: Basic Books.
Ratele, K. 2008. “Masculinity and Male Mortality in South Africa.” African Safety Promotion Journal: A Journal of Injury and Violence Prevention 6 (2): 19–41. https://doi.org/10.4314/asp.v6i2.31587. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/asp.v6i2.31587
Ratele, K. 2013. “Masculinities without Tradition.” Politikon 40 (1): 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2013.765680. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2013.765680
Ratele, K. 2016. Liberating Masculinities. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Ratele, K. 2017. “Contesting ‘Traditional’ Masculinity and Men’s Sexuality in Kwadukuza, South Africa.” Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie 108 (3): 331–344. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12233
Reifman, A. 2022. Journeys through Emerging Adulthood: An Introduction to Development from Ages 18–30 around the World. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003156567. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003156567
Seedat, M., A. Van Niekerk, R. Jewkes, S. Suffla, and K. Ratele. 2009. “Violence and Injuries in South Africa: Prioritising an Agenda for Prevention.” The Lancet 374 (9694): 1011–1022. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60948-X. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60948-X
Shai, N. J., R. Jewkes, M. Nduna, and K. Dunkle. 2012. “Masculinities and Condom Use Patterns among Young Rural South African Men: A Cross-Sectional Baseline Survey.” BMC Public Health 12: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-462. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-462
Statistics South Africa. 2023. Census 2022 Statistical Release. P0301.4. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. https://census.statssa.gov.za/assets/documents/2022/P03014_Census_2022_Statistical_Release.pdf.
Syed, M. 2015. “Emerging Adulthood: Developmental Stage, Theory, or Nonsense?” In The Oxford Handbook of Emerging Adulthood, edited by J. J. Arnett, 11–25. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795574.013.9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795574.013.9
Uy, P. J., N. A. Massoth, and W. H. Gottdiener. 2014. “Rethinking Male Drinking: Traditional Masculine Ideologies, Gender-Role Conflict, and Drinking Motives.” Psychology of Men and Masculinity 15 (2): 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032239. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032239
Venter, C., S. N. Mostert, and T. Botha. 2024. “Health Literacy among an Undergraduate Student Population: A Comparative Study.” South African Journal of Psychology 54 (3): 348–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463241268811. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463241268811
Walker, L. 2005. “Negotiating the Boundaries of Masculinity in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” In Men Behaving Differently: South African Men Since 1994, edited by G. Reid and L. Walker, 161–182. Cape Town: Double Storey Books.
Zareipour, M., A. Sadaghianifar, Z. Moradi, N. Jafari, and M. Esmzadeh. 2020. “Health Literacy and Its Relationship with Self-Efficacy in Health Ambassadors.” Journal of Health Literacy 4 (4): 56–63. https://doi.org/10.22038/jhl.2020.44789.1090.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Accepted 2026-04-23
Published 2026-05-28
