Investigating Small-scale Farmers and Barriers to Entry in Cannabis Cultivation in South Africa

Itumeleng Dube; Zamandlovu S Makola; Nonceba Ntoyanto; Clara Msiza

doi:10.25159/2663-6689/15002

Authors

Itumeleng Dube University of South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-5925
Zamandlovu S Makola https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4311-6073
Nonceba Ntoyanto https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1231-3755 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1231-3755
Clara Msiza https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1530-0666

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6689/15002

Keywords:

Small-scale farmers, Cannabis, green gold, cannabis cultivation, rural livelihoods, cannabis legalisation, agricultural reform

Abstract

The legalisation of the prodigal green crop has left the most vulnerable small-scale cannabis farmers high and dry. In 2018 the South African constitutional court legalised the use of cannabis for personal and medical use. The 2018 regulations on cannabis were welcomed and a new lifeline in the eradication of poverty. However, in the haste to join the global urgency in cultivating cannabis, small-scale farmers were left behind and prevented in the bid of the green-gold rush. The cannabis legislation and laws that were created to enable South Africans to participate in the lucrative cannabis market has done the opposite and has crafted barriers of entry. Using a desktop study, this article explores how the 2018 regulations on cannabis cultivation prevent small-scale farmers in participating in the l market in South Africa. The aim of this paper is to highlight the challenges that small-scale cannabis farmers face in South Africa and how their participation in the newly opened market would benefit the communities they live and operate in. The main findings of the research indicate the challenges for small-scale farmers of no support system and transformational issues persist even after the 24 years of democracy in South Africa.

References

Belackova, Vendula, Michaela Roubalova, and Katinka van de Ven. 2019. “Overview of ‘Home’ Cultivation Policies and the Case for Community-based Cannabis Supply.” International Journal of Drug Policy 71: 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.05.021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.05.021

Bewley-Taylor, David, Martin Jelsma, and Sylvia Kay. 2020. “Cannabis Regulation and Development: Fair(er) Trade Options for Emerging Legal Markets.” In Drug Policies and Development: Conflict and Coexistence, edited by Julia Buxton, Mary Chinery-Hesse, and Khalid Tinasti, 106–27. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004440494_007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004440494_007

Bodwitch, Hekia, Michael Polson, Eric Biber, Gordon M. Hickey, and Van Butsic. 2021. “Why Comply? Farmer Motivations and Barriers in Cannabis Agriculture.” Journal of Rural Studies 86 (August): 155–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.05.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.05.006

Bundwini, Nqobile. 2023. “Destigmatising the Recreational Cannabis Industry.” Cape Town: University of Cape Town. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/38464

Carelsen, C. P. R., Bongani Ncube, and Morris Fanadzo. 2021. “Classification and Characterisation of Smallholder Farmers in South Africa: A Brief Review.” South African Journal of Agricultural Extension 49 (2): 97–106. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2021/v49n2a12821 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2021/v49n2a12821

CDCSA. 2022. “The Cannabis Development Council of South Africa (CDCSA): Building a Prosperous Rural Industry with Cannabis.” 2022. https://cdcsa.co.za/

CDOR. 2021. “Colorado Department of Revenue 2021 Annual Report.” Annual. Colorado Department of Revenue. https://cdor.colorado.gov/sites/revenue/files/documents/Annual_Report_2021.pdf

CDOR. 2022a. “Colorado Marijuana Sales Reports.” Colorado Department of Revenue. https://cdor.colorado.gov/data-and-reports/marijuana-data/marijuana-sales-reports

CDOR. 2022b. “Colorado Marijuana Tax Reports.” Colorado Department of Revenue. https://cdor.colorado.gov/data-and-reports/marijuana-data/marijuana-tax-reports

Chisasa, Joseph. 2016. “Determinants of the Demand for Credit by Smallholder Farmers: Survey Results from South Africa.” International Journal of Economic Policy in Emerging Economies 9 (1): 26–46. https://ideas.repec.org/a/ids/ijepee/v9y2016i1p26-46.html; https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEPEE.2016.074944 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEPEE.2016.074944

Corda, Alejandro, and Mariano Fusero. 2016. “Cannabis in Latin America and the Caribbean: From Punishment to Regulation.” Drug Policy Briefing 48: 1–32.

DAFF. 2020. “Annual Report for the 2019/20 Financial Year Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.” Annual Report RP358/2020. South Africa: Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. https://nationalgovernment.co.za/department_annual/308/2020-department:-agriculture-forestry-and-fisheries-(daff)-annual-report.pdf

DALRRD. 2021. “Draft National Cannabis Master Plan for South Africa.” Department of Agriculture, land reform and rural development. https://medicalcannabis.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/National-Cannabis-Master-Plan-for-South-Africa-Version-5.pdf

De Lange, Andre. 2021. “South Africa’s Green Gold.” 2021. https://www.cliffedekkerhofmeyr.com/en/news/publications/2021/Corporate/agriculture-aquaculture-and-fishing-sector-alert-26-february-south-africas-green-gold.html

Decorte, Tom. 2010. “The Case for Small-scale Domestic Cannabis Cultivation.” International Journal of Drug Policy 21 (4): 271–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.01.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.01.009

Delgado, Christopher L., and Ammar Siamwalla. 2018. “Rural Economy and Farm Income Diversification in Developing Countries.” In Food Security, Diversification and Resource Management: Refocusing the Role of Agriculture? 126–43. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429457326-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429457326-8

Dewbre, Joe, Céline Giner, Wyatt Thompson, and Martin Von Lampe. 2008. “High Food Commodity Prices: Will They Stay? Who Will Pay?” Agricultural Economics 39: 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2008.00346.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2008.00346.x

Duvall, Chris S. 2019. “A Brief Agricultural History of Cannabis in Africa, from Prehistory to Canna-Colony.” Echogéo, 48. https://doi.org/10.4000/echogeo.17599 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/echogeo.17599

Edmonds, Kevin. 2021. “Legalize It? A Comparative Study of Cannabis Economies in St Vincent and St Lucia.” PhD, Canada, Ontario, CA: University of Toronto, Canada. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2508617408/abstract/13FBD6EF50664512PQ/1

Eichsteller, Marta, Tim Njagi, and Elvin Nyukuri. 2022. “The Role of Agriculture in Poverty Escapes in Kenya: Developing a Capabilities Approach in the Context of Climate Change.” World Development 149 (January): 105705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105705 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105705

Ellis, Frank, and H. A. de Freeman. 2004. “Rural Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction Strategies in Four African Countries.” Journal of Development Studies 40 (4): 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380410001673175 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380410001673175

Emanuel, Machel, Andre Haughton, and K’adamawe K’nife. 2018. “Policy Analysis and Implications of Establishing the Caribbean Cannabis Economy (CCE): Lessons from Jamaica.” Drugs and Alcohol Today 18 (April). https://doi.org/10.1108/DAT-09-2017-0052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/DAT-09-2017-0052

Fan, Shenggen, Michael Johnson, Anuja Saurkar, and Tsitsi Makombe. 2008. Investing in African Agriculture to Halve Poverty by 2015. Intl Food Policy Res Inst.

Fan, Shenggen, and Christopher Rue. 2020. “The Role of Smallholder Farms in a Changing World.” In The Role of Smallholder Farms in Food and Nutrition Security, 13–28. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42148-9_2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42148-9_2

FAO. 2013. “Investing in Smallholder Agriculture for Food Security: A Report by the High-level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE) of the Committee on World Food Security.” Rome, Italy: FAO. https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/6559f2f5-10d4-5ff6-941d-498626eb219a/

Funmilayo, Jemilehin, Elsy Buligwa Asena, Newton Muchiti Mayula, and Mmatshepo Seoka. 2023. “How Rural Development and Agriculture Can Support Social Inclusion in Developing Countries - A Sub-Saharan Approach.” World Bank Blogs. 14 November 2023. https://blogs.worldbank.org/youth-transforming-africa/how-rural-development-and-agriculture-can-support-social-inclusion

Gassner, Anja, David Harris, Kai Mausch, Anne Terheggen, C. Lopes, R. F. Finlayson, and Philip Dobie. 2019. “Poverty Eradication and Food Security through Agriculture in Africa: Rethinking Objectives and Entry Points.” Outlook on Agriculture 48 (4): 309–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030727019888513 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0030727019888513

Gomez y Paloma, Sergio, Laura Riesgo, and Kamel Louhichi. 2020. The Role of Smallholder Farms in Food and Nutrition Security. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42148-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42148-9

Gouws, J. C. 2017. “Cultivation of Cannabis and Manufacture of Cannabis-related Pharmaceutical Products for Medicinal and Research Purposes.” Medicine Control Council, South Africa.

Grasswitz, Tessa R. 2019. “Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Small-scale Farms in Developed Economies: Challenges and Opportunities.” Insects 10 (6): 179. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10060179 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10060179

Greyling, Jan C., Nick Vink, and Edward Mabaya. 2015. “South Africa’s Agricultural Sector Twenty Years after Democracy (1994 to 2013).” Professional Agricultural Workers Journal 3 (1): 10.

Gwala, Ranson Sifiso. 2023. “The Legalisation of Cannabis in South Africa: Proposing an Economic Value Chain Model for South Africa.” In Rapid Innovation and Development in the Global Cannabis Market, 98–122. IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-6346-8.ch006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-6346-8.ch006

Hajizadeh, Mohammad. 2016. “Legalizing and Regulating Marijuana in Canada: Review of Potential Economic, Social, and Health Impacts.” International Journal of Health Policy and Management 5 (8): 453–56. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijhpm.2016.63 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15171/ijhpm.2016.63

Institute For Economic Justice. 2023. “Inclusive Development in the South African Cannabis Industry.” Institute For Economic Justice (blog). 24 February 2023. https://www.iej.org.za/inclusive-development-in-the-south-african-cannabis-industry/

Institute of Futures Research. 2022. “Futures of Agricultural Employment in South Africa 2035.” Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch. https://www.agbiz.co.za/document/open/ifr-futures-of-employment-in-agriculture-2035.

Jelsma, Martin, Tom Blickman, Sylvia Kay, Pien Metaal, Nicolás Martínez Rivera, and Dania Putri. 2021. “A Sustainable Future for Cannabis Farmers.” https://www.tni.org/en/publication/a-sustainable-future-for-cannabis-farmers

Kay, Sylvia, Martin Jelsma, and David Bewley-Taylor. 2020. “Fair Trade Cannabis: A Road Map for Meeting the Socio-economic Needs and Interests of Small and Traditional Growers.” Journal of Fair Trade, June. https://doi.org/10.13169/jfairtrade.2.1.0027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13169/jfairtrade.2.1.0027

Kelly, Erin Clover, and Marisa Lia Formosa. 2020. “The Economic and Cultural Importance of Cannabis Production to a Rural Place.” Journal of Rural Studies 75 (1): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.02.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.02.009

Kimenyi, Mwangi S. 2002. Agriculture, Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction. Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis.

Kirsten, Johann F., and Johan van Zyl. 1998. “Defining Small-scale Farmers in the South African Context.” Agrekon 37 (4): 551–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.1998.9523530 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.1998.9523530

Langyintuo, Augustine. 2020. “Smallholder Farmers’ Access to Inputs and Finance in Africa.” In The Role of Smallholder Farms in Food and Nutrition Security, by Sergio Gomez y Paloma, Laura Riesgo, and Kamel Louhichi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42148-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42148-9_7

Latela, Majirata. 2020. “Minister Probes Cannabis Licensing.” The Reporter Lesotho, 26 August 2020. https://www.thereporter.co.ls/2020/08/26/minister-probes-cannabis-licensing

Lenton, Simon, Vibeke A. Frank, Monica J. Barratt, Gary R. Potter, and Tom Decorte. 2018. “Growing Practices and the Use of Potentially Harmful Chemical Additives among a Sample of Small-Scale Cannabis Growers in Three Countries.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 192 (November): 250–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.040 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.040

Lu, Juliet, Laura Dev, and Margiana Petersen-Rockney. 2022. “Criminalized Crops: Environmentally Justified Illicit Crop Interventions and the Cyclical Marginalization of Smallholders.” Political Geography 99: 102781. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102781

Lubaale, Emma Charlene, and Simangele Daisy Mavundla. 2019. “Decriminalisation of Cannabis for Personal Use in South Africa.” African Human Rights Law Journal 19 (2): 819–42. https://doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2019/v19n2a13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2019/v19n2a13

Majokweni, Zipo-zihle Pilela. 2018. “The Impact of Outsourced Extension Services on the Performance of Smallholder Farmers in Msinga, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.” Thesis. https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/handle/10413/16738

Manu, Emmanuel, Mbuyiselo Douglas, Mohlomi Jafta Ntsaba, and Elvis Enowbeyang Tarkang. 2021. “Perspectives of Illicit Marijuana Growers and Traders on Commercial Legalisation of Marijuana in South Africa: Considerations for Policy Formulation.” Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 16 (1): 54. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-021-00391-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-021-00391-w

Mathinya, V. N., A. C. Franke, G. W. J. van de Ven, and K. E. Giller. 2022. “Productivity and Constraints of Small-scale Crop Farming in the Summer Rainfall Region of South Africa.” Outlook on Agriculture 51 (2): 139–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270221091839 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270221091839

Mbiba, Beacon. 1995. Urban Agriculture in Zimbabwe: Implications for Urban Management and Poverty. Avebury.

Medicine Control Council. 2017. “Licence Application to Cultivate, Manufacture or Import Cannabis for Medicinal Purposes.” SAHPRA. https://www.sahpra.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Application-for-Licence_Medicinal-Cannabis-00000002.pdf

Mhlanga, David. 2021. “Financial Access and Poverty Reduction in Agriculture: A Case of Households in Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe.” African Journal of Business and Economic Research 16 (2): 73–93. https://doi.org/10.31920/1750-4562/2021/v16n2a4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/1750-4562/2021/v16n2a4

Mofya-Mukuka, Rhoda, Jairos Sambo, and Christian H. Kuhlgatz. 2017. “Exploring Linkages between Farm Productive Assets and Household Food Security in Zambia.” Working Paper 124.

Mokwena, Kebogile. 2019. “Social and Public Health Implications of the Legalisation of Recreational Cannabis: A Literature Review.” African Journal of Primary Health Care and Family Medicine 11 (1): 1–6. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v11i1.2136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v11i1.2136

Momeena, Omarjee. 2020. “Cannabis and Related Substances Legislation and Regulation.” SAHPRA. https://www.sahpra.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Cannabis-and-Related-Substances_MG_10032020_Glenhove_final.pdf

Mustapha, Umar Farouk, Abdul-Wadud Alhassan, Dong-Neng Jiang, and Guang-Li Li. 2021. “Sustainable Aquaculture Development: A Review on the Roles of Cloud Computing, Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence (CIA).” Reviews in Aquaculture 13 (4): 2076–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12559 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12559

Muzekenyi, Mike, Jethro Zuwarimwe, and Beata M. Kilonzo. 2022. “Utilizing Small-scale Commercial Farming to Enhance Local Economic Development in South Africa.” Journal of Contemporary Management 19 (2): 22–39. https://doi.org/10.35683/jcm20007.155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35683/jcm20007.155

Mwareya, Ray, and Nyasha Bhobo. 2021. “Lesotho: Africa’s Budding Medicinal Cannabis Cultivation.” The Africa Report.Com, 17 May 2021. https://www.theafricareport.com/87373/lesotho-africas-budding-medicinal-cannabis-cultivation/

National Planning Commission. 2013. “National Development Plan. A Vision for 2030.” Pretoria: Government Printer.

Nelson, Ediomo-Ubong. 2021. “Between Prohibition and Regulation: Narrative Analysis of Cannabis Policy Debate in Africa,” October.

Nkambule, P. 2019. “Cultivation of Cannabis and Manufacture of Cannabis-related Pharmaceutical Products for Medicinal and Research Purposes.” SAHPRA. https://sahpra.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/93b0b4262.44_Cannabiscultivation_v2_Nov2019.pdf

Nyawo, J. C., and B. C Mubangizi. 2021. “Perception of Agricultural Smallholder Farmers on Public Extension and Advisory Services in Ethekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province.” Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University 56 (3). https://www.jsju.org/index.php/journal/article/view/922; https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.42 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.42

Orr, Alastair. 2000. “‘Green Gold?’: Burley Tobacco, Smallholder Agriculture, and Poverty Alleviation in Malawi.” World Development 28 (2): 347–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00127-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00127-8

Parry, Charles, Bronwyn Myers, and Jonathan Caulkins. 2019. “Decriminalisation of Recreational Cannabis in South Africa.” The Lancet 393 (10183): 1804–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30011-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30011-X

Pedroncelli, Peter. 2019. “1st Commercial Cannabis Grow License Issued in South Africa.” The Moguldom Nation, 8 November 2019. https://moguldom.com/238792/1st-commercial-cannabis-grow-license-issued-in-south-africa/

Pierre-Arnaud, Chouvy. 2019. “Cannabis Cultivation in the World: Heritages, Trends and Challenges.” EchoGeo Issue 48: 50.

Qobo, Mzukisi, and Wandile Sihlobo. 2019. “Lessons from Africa: High Time for South Africa to Refine its Cannabis Licensing Mechanism.” 28 July 2019. https://wandilesihlobo.com/2019/08/02/lessons-from-africa-high-time-for-south-africa-to-refine-its-cannabis-licensing-mechanism/

Rightford, Brett Warwick Bevan. 2020. “Exploring Hemp Farming as a Sustainable Agriculture in South Africa, Using a Social-ecological Systems Approach.” Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.

Rivera, Nicolás Martínez. 2019. “The Challenges of Medicinal Cannabis in Colombia: A Look at Small- and Medium-scale Growers.” Transnationalinstitute. https://www.tni.org/files/publication-downloads/policybrief_52_eng_web.pdf

Rohne Till, Emelie. 2022. “SIO Multiplier Analysis.” In Agriculture for Economic Development in Africa: Evidence from Ethiopia, 77–89. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07901-6_7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07901-6_7

Rusenga, Clemence, Gernot Klantschnig, Neil C. M. Carrier, and Simon Howell. 2022. “Cannabis Policy Changes in Africa Are Welcome. But Small Producers Are the Losers.” The Conversation, May.

SAHPRA. 2017. “SA Guide to Good Manufacturing Practice for Medicines.” The South African Health Products Regulatory Authority. https://www.sahpra.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/c2add5ba4.01_SA_Guide_to_GMP_Dec17_v6.pdf

SAHPRA. 2019. “Cannabis Licensing.” SAHPRA (blog). 14 October 2019. https://www.sahpra.org.za/press-releases/cannabis-licensing/

Schwab, Benjamin, Ariani Wartenberg, and Van Butsic. 2019. “Characteristics of Farms Applying for Cannabis Cultivation Permits.” California Agriculture 73 (3). https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.2019a0019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.2019a0019

Shimeles, Abebe, Audrey Verdier-Chouchane, and Amadou Boly. 2018. “Introduction: Understanding the Challenges of the Agricultural Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In Building a Resilient and Sustainable Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Abebe Shimeles, Audrey Verdier-Chouchane, and Amadou Boly, 1–12. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76222-7_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76222-7_1

Siegel, Paul B., and Jeffrey Alwang. 2005. “Poverty Reducing Potential of Smallholder Agriculture in Zambia.” Africa Region Working Paper Series.

Sihlobo, Wandile, and Johan Kirsten. 2021. “How to Narrow the Big Divide between Black and White Farmers in South Africa.” The Conversation (blog). 30 November 2021. http://theconversation.com/how-to-narrow-the-big-divide-between-black-and-white-farmers-in-south-africa-172328

Sommano, Sarana Rose, Tibet Tangpao, Tanachai Pankasemsuk, Voranate Ponpanumas, Yuthana Phimolsiripol, Pornchai Rachtanapun, and Shashanka K. Prasad. 2022. “Growing Ganja Permission: A Real Gateway for Thailand’s Promising Industrial Crop?” Journal of Cannabis Research 4 (1): 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-022-00121-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-022-00121-4

South Africa. 2020. “Cannabis for Private Purpose Bill.” Pretoria: Government Printers.

Statistics South Africa. 2023. “Quarterly Labour Force Survey Quarter 2: 2023.” P0211. Pretoria. https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02112ndQuarter2023.pdf

Sutherland, Lee-Ann, Lívia Madureira, Violeta Dirimanova, Malgorzata Bogusz, Jozef Kania, Krystyna Vinohradnik, Rachel Creaney, Dominic Duckett, Timothy Koehnen, and Andrea Knierim. 2017. “New Knowledge Networks of Small-scale Farmers in Europe’s Periphery.” Land Use Policy 63 (April): 428–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.01.028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.01.028

Thornhill, Alexander Wallace. 2022. “Developing a Framework to Address the Challenges Faced by Small-scale Farmers in South Africa.”

Van Wyk, J. 2019. “Só Kry jy ’n Daggalisensie (How to Get a Dagga Licence).” LandBou, 2019. https://kalender.landbou.com/kalender-widget/

Vélez-Torres, Irene, Diana Hurtado, and Bladimir Bueno. 2021. “Medicinal Marijuana, Inc.: A Critique on the Market-Led Legalization of Cannabis and the Criminalization of Rural Livelihoods in Colombia.” Critical Criminology 29: 505–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-021-09589-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-021-09589-7

Venter, Carin. 2020. “Legalising South Africa’s Commercial Cannabis Production.” FarmBiz 6 (6): 30–32. https://doi.org/10.10520/EJC-1dd74e7c3d

Victor Bekun, Festus, and Seyi Saint Akadiri. 2019. “Poverty and Agriculture in Southern Africa Revisited: A Panel Causality Perspective.” Sage Open 9 (1): 2158244019828853. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019828853

World Bank. 2022. “Escaping Poverty in Malawi Requires Improved Agricultural Productivity, Climate Resilience, and Structural Transformation.” World Bank (blog). 2022. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2022/11/17/escaping-poverty-in-malawi-requires-improved-agricultural-productivity-climate-resilience-and-structural-transformation

World Law Group. 2020. “2020 Global Report on Cannabis Policy.” World Law Group. https://www.theworldlawgroup.com/writable/documents/news/2.8.2021-Cannabis-Guide.pdf

Zantsi, S., J. Greyling, and Nick Vink. 2018. “Towards a Common Understanding of ‘Emerging Farmer’ in a South African Context: An Exploration of Data from a Survey in the Former Homelands of the Eastern Cape Province.” https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2019/v47n2a505 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2019/v47n2a505