“Love For My Country”: Political Settlements and Anti-Corruption Initiatives in Zambia under President Levy Mwanawasa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/2663-6689/21787Keywords:
governance, political leadership, political settlements, anti-corruption, public accountability, ZambiaAbstract
This paper examines the relationship between political leadership, political settlements, and anti-corruption reform in Zambia during the presidency of Levy Patrick Mwanawasa (2001–2008). Drawing on the political settlements framework, the study explores how elite power relations, institutional dynamics, and leadership agency shaped the implementation of anti-corruption initiatives. A qualitative case study approach was employed, combining semi-structured interviews with five key informants from government, academia, and anti-corruption institutions with documentary analysis of academic, policy, and historical sources. Data was analysed using thematic and content analysis.
The findings reveal that Mwanawasa’s anti-corruption campaign emerged within a highly contested political settlement characterised by intra-party factionalism, donor pressure, civil society mobilisation, and the enduring influence of former President Frederick Chiluba. Although Mwanawasa demonstrated significant political will and ethical leadership by pursuing high-profile corruption cases and strengthening governance frameworks, these efforts were constrained by institutional weaknesses, bureaucratic inertia, judicial delays, and resistance from entrenched political interests. The study further shows that while important legal and institutional reforms were introduced, their long-term sustainability remained dependent on shifting political alliances and elite interests. The paper contributes to the literature on political corruption and governance in Africa by demonstrating that anti-corruption outcomes are shaped not only by individual leadership but also by the broader political settlement within which leaders operate. It argues that sustainable anti-corruption reform requires the alignment of political leadership, institutional capacity, and supportive elite coalitions capable of maintaining accountability beyond the tenure of individual reformers.
References
Abdulai, A. 2009. "Political Will in Combating Corruption in Developing and Transition Economies: A Comparative Study of Singapore, Hong Kong and Ghana." Journal of Financial Crime 16: 387-417.
https://doi.org/10.1108/13590790910993753 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/13590790910993753
Amundsen, I. 2019. "Extractive and Power-Preserving Political Corruption." In Political Corruption in Africa: Extraction and Power Preservation, edited by I. Amundsen, 1-28, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788972529.00007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788972529.00007
Andrews, M. 2016. "Going Beyond Heroic Leaders in Development: Going Beyond Heroic Leaders." Public Administration and Development 36 (3): 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1761 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1761
Asamoah, K., and Yeboah-Assiamah, E. 2019. "Ubuntu Philosophy for Public Leadership and Governance Praxis." Journal of Global Responsibility 10 (4): 307-321. https://doi.10.1108/JGR-01-2019-0008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JGR-01-2019-0008
Asomah, J. Y. 2019. "What Are the Key Drivers of Persistent Ghanaian Political Corruption?" Journal of Asian and African Studies 54(5): 638-655. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619826339 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619826339
Barrington, R., David-Barrett, E., Philips, R. D., and Garrod, G. 2023. Dictionary of Corruption. Agenda. doi:10.2307/jj.7823689 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781788216609
https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.7823689 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.7823689
Baxter, J. 2019. "Leadership, Law and Development." Law and Development Review 12(1): 119-158.
https://doi.org/10.1515/ldr-2018-0046 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/ldr-2018-0046
Benington, J., and Hartley, J. 2024. "The Cloud of Unknowing: The Theory and Practice of Public Value in Times of Extremity." In Challenges to Public Value Creation: Authority, Process, and Complexity, edited by B. J. Cook, 57-76. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46030-2_4
Bertelsmann, S. 2026. BTI 2026 Country Report: Zambia. Gütersloh: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/ZMB
Calland, R., and Sithole, M. 2022. The Presidents: From Mandela to Ramaphosa, Leadership in the Age of Crisis. Cape Town: Penguin Random House.
Carbone, G., and Pellegata, A. 2020. Political Leadership in Africa: Leaders and Development South of the Sahara. New York: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/gov.2023.2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108529266
Cheteni, P., and Shindika, E. S. 2017. "Ethical Leadership in South Africa and Botswana." BAR. Brazilian Administration Review 14 (2): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-7692bar2017160077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-7692bar2017160077
Chukwuemeka, E., Ugwuanyi, B., and Ewuim, N. 2012. "Curbing Corruption in Nigeria: The Imperatives of Good Leadership." African Research Review 6 (3):338-358. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v6i3.25 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v6i3.25
Dei, D., Osei-Bonsu, R., and Dowuna. I.N. 2016. "Striving for Effective Leadership in Africa: A Case for Ethical Leadership." Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry 13: 85-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.21806/aamm.2016.13.06 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21806/aamm.2016.13.06
Donge, J. K. 2009. "The Plundering of Zambian Resources by Frederick Chiluba and His Friends: A Case Study of the Interaction between National Politics and the International Drive towards Good Governance." African Affairs 108 (430): 69-90.
https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adn073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adn073
Fagbadebo, O., and Dorasamy, N. 2021. "Political Leadership, Corruption, and the Crisis of Governance in Africa: A Discourse on African Renaissance." African Renaissance 18(1)27-52. https://doi.org/10.31920/2516-5305/2021/18n1a2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/2516-5305/2021/18n1a2
Ford, J., Ford, J., and Polin, B. 2021. "Leadership in the Implementation of Change: Functions, Sources, and Requisite Variety." Journal of Change Management 21(1):87-119. 10.1080/14697017.2021.1861697 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2021.1861697
GAN Integrity. 2020. Zambia Risk Report. https://ganintegrity.com/country-profiles/zambia/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.5089/9781513550640.002
Hope, K.R. 2017. "Fighting Corruption in Developing Countries: Some Aspects of Policy from Lessons from the Field." Journal of Public Affairs 17(4): e1683-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1683 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1683
International Monetary Fund. 2022. Zambia: Technical Assistance Report-Diagnostic Report on Governance and Corruption, Country Report No. 2023/003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400228476.002
Kalungu-Banda, M. 2010. It's How We End That Matters: Leadership Lessons from an African President. Milton Keynes: Author House UK Ltd.
Khan, M. 2019. "Knowledge, Skills, and Organisational Capabilities for Structural Transformation." Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 48:42-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2018.05.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2018.05.006
Khan, M. 2018. "Political Settlements and the Analysis of Institutions." African Affairs 117 (469):636-655.
https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adx044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adx044
Khan, M. H. 2010. "Political Settlements and the Governance of Growth-Enhancing Institutions." Research Paper Series on Governance for Growth. London.
Khan, M.H. 2004. "State Failure in Developing Countries and Strategies of Institutional Reform." In Towards Pro-poor Policies: Aid Institutions and Globalization. Proceedings of Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, edited by B. Tungodden, N. Stern, and I. Kolstad. Oxford: Oxford University Press and World Bank. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3683
Lichtenstein, B.B., Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., Seers, A., Orton, J. D., and Schreiber, C. 2006. "Complexity Leadership Theory: An Interactive Perspective on Leading in Complex Adaptive Systems." Emergence (Mahwah, N.J.) 8(4): 2-12.
Lifuka, R.L., and Haricharan, S.J. 2024. "President Mwanawasa's Transition to Transformational Leadership in Combating Political Corruption in Zambia." SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde 50(0): a2161. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip. v50i0.2161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/SAJIP.v50i0.2161
Malila, M. 2012. "The Shifting Paradigms in the Fight against Corruption in Zambia." Zambia Law Journal 43: 1-56.
Malupenga, A. 2009. Levy Patrick Mwanawasa- An Incentive for Posterity. Johannesburg: NISC Pty Ltd.
Mbao, M. 2011. "Prevention and Combating of Corruption in Zambia." The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 44(2):255-274.
Mintzberg, H. 2010. Managing on Three Planes. Leader to Leader. (57): 29-33. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.425 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.425
Mkhize, N.E. 2025. "Plans Without Action? Politics and Institutional Challenges of Anti-Corruption Reforms in the BRICS Countries." Journal of Economic Criminology 10 100197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100197 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2025.100197
Momba, J.C. 2007. "The Intersection between Politics and Corruption in Zambia." The South African Journal of International Affairs 14 (1): 115-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220460709545486 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10220460709545486
Mungiu-Pippidi, A. 2013. "Controlling Corruption through Collective Action." Journal of Democracy 24 (1): 101-115.
https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2013.0020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2013.0020
Ndulo, M. 2014. "Review of the Anti-corruption Legal Framework in Zambia." Southern African Institute for Policy and Research (SAIPAR).
Ntomba, R. 2016. The Mwanawasa Years: An Analysis of His Presidency. Lusaka: Gadsden Publishers. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2tr4wms DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2tr4wms
Phiri, B.J. 2006. A Political History of Zambia-From the Colonial Period to the 3rd Republic. (ebook) Africa World Press Inc.
Pospisil, J., and Rocha Menocal, A. 2017. "Why Political Settlements Matter: Navigating Inclusion in Processes of Institutional Transformation." Journal of International Development 29(5): 551-558.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3289 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3289
Rahman, K. 2020. Zambia: Overview of Corruption and Anticorruption. U4 Helpdesk Answer.
Republic of South Africa. 2022. "Judicial Commission of Inquiry into Allegations of State Capture, Corruption and Fraud in the Public Sector including Organs of State. Part 1. Pretoria: The Presidency."
Sardanis, A. 2014. Zambia, the First 50 Years: Reflections of An Eyewitness. London: I.B. Tauris.
https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755623518 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755623518
SIDA. 2003. "Performance Analysis - Zambia." https://cdn.sida.se/publications/files/sida3528en-performance-analysis-zambia.pdf
Simutanyi, N., and Hinfelaar, M. 2018. "Understanding Zambia's Black Box." Discussion Paper Series No. 3. Southern African Institute for Policy and Research.
Simutanyi, N. 2006. "The Contested Role of Former Presidents in Zambia." In Legacies of Power, edited by R. Southall, and H. Melber, 73-94. Cape Town: HRSC Press.
Sishuwa, S. 2016. "I am Zambia's Redeemer.': Populism and the Rise of Michael Sata, 1955-2011." DPhil Thesis; University of Oxford.
Sishuwa, S. 2020. "Leadership Matters: Remembering Levy Mwanawasa." News Diggers, August, 19 2020.
Sishuwa, S. 2021. "The Shadow State in Zambia in The Shadow State in Africa." DOI: 10.1080/03057070.2021.1940602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2021.1940602
Smith-Hohn, J. 2009. "A Strategic Conflict Assessment of Zambia." Monograph (158) Institute for Security Studies.
Szeftel, M. 2000. "Eat with us: Managing Corruption and Patronage under Zambia's Three Republics, 1964-99." Journal of Contemporary African Studies 18(2): 207-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/713675624 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/713675624
Taylor, S. D. 2006. "Divergent Politico-Legal Responses to Past Presidential Corruption in Zambia and Kenya: Catching the 'Big Fish', or Letting Him Off the Hook?" Third World Quarterly 27 (2): 281-301. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590500432325 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590500432325
Transparency International. 2015. "What is Corruption?" http://www.transparency.org/what-is-corruption/#define (accessed 31 October 2021).
Transparency International. 2019. "Corruption and the Crisis of Democracy." https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/helpdesk/Corruption-and-Crisis-of-Democracy_2019.pdf
Transparency International. 2026. "Corruption Perceptions Index." Transparency International.
Usher, A D. 2010. "Donors Lose Faith in Zambian Health Ministry." The Lancet 376(9739):403-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61205-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61205-6
Wiatr, J. J. 2022. Political Leadership Between Democracy and Authoritarianism: Comparative and Historical Perspectives. Verlag Barbara Budrich https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv27tctmb DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv27tctmb
Williams, M.J. 2021. "Beyond State Capacity: Bureaucratic Performance, Policy Implementation and Reform." Journal of Institutional Economics 17(2): 339-357. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744137420000478 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744137420000478
Zhou, Y., Ajide, I. N., and Ajide, K. B. 2026. "Political Corruption, State Functionality, and Sustainable Development: Evidence from African Economies." Sustainable Development 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.71084 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.71084
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Unisa PressAccepted 2026-06-12
Published 2026-07-01
