The Price They Pay for Their Independence: Understanding the Persecution of Judges in Africa as Retribution for Their Impartiality
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/2522-6800/15061Keywords:
judges, independence, persecution, politics, gender, AfricaAbstract
Various recent research studies suggest that most judiciaries in Africa are captured by the ruling elites and they are being weaponised to persecute political opponents through judicial prosecution. However, not much has been researched and written about the victimisation of courageous judicial officers in Africa who insist on performing their judicial functions impartially and in the process are persecuted as a form of retribution for their impartiality. Much of the existing literature analyses and frames the victimisation of judicial officers as ‘attacks against the independence of the judiciary’ in Africa. While the victimisation of judicial officers as punishment for their impartiality constitutes violation of the principle of the independence of the judiciary, this paper argues that certain forms of victimisation must be understood as persecution of judicial officers. The paper discusses case studies which demonstrate a pattern of persecutory measures undertaken against impartial judges, not just to undermine their independence but to punish them by inflicting upon them and their families as much harm and pain as is possible. Characterising these forms of victimisation as ‘attacks against the independence of judges’ does not adequately capture and depict the seriousness of this problem. It is mischaracterisation of the problem, which may affect the way in which solutions for this problem are designed. The paper identifies and discusses trends of this problem of persecution of judges in Africa. It presents these trends in three categories namely: (a) political persecution; (b) selective application of judicial ethics to persecute certain judges; and (c) the targeting of women judges for their impartiality.
Metrics
References
Africa Judges and Jurists Forum, ‘Report on the State of Judicial Independence in East Africa: Contemporary Threats and Mitigation Strategies’ (1 February 2024), <https://africajurists.org/report-on-the-state-of-judicial-independence-in-east-africa-contemporary-threats-and-mitigation-strategies-webinar/> accessed 31 March 2024.
Africa Peer Review Mechanism, ‘Governance Report 2023 – Unconstitutional Change of Government in Africa’ (African Peer Review Mechanism, 12 July 2023) <https://aprm.au.int/en/documents/2023-07-12/africa-governance-report-2023-unconstitutional-change-government-africa> accessed 31 March 2024.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, ‘Information Sheet Number 3: Communication Procedure of the Organisation of African Unity’ (January 2011) <https://achpr.au.int/sites/default/files/files/2021-04/achprcommunicationprocedureeng.pdf> accessed 31 March 2024.
African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, ‘Welcome to the African Court’ <https://www.african-court.org/wpafc/welcome-to-the-african-court/#:~:text=The%2034%20States%20which%20have,%2C%20Nigeria%2C%20Niger%2C%20Rwanda%2C> accessed 31 March 2024.
Afrobarometer, ‘Gender & Leadership: Findings of Afrobarometer Round 6 Survey in Lesotho’ (2022) <https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/migrated/files/media-briefing/lesotho/les_r6_presentation3_gender_leadership.pdf> accessed 27 June 2023.
Amnesty International, ‘Death Threats / Fear for Safety’ (Amnesty International, Press Statement 29 April 1998) <https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/amr460071998en.pdf> accessed 26 June 2023.
Applebaum A, ‘The Disturbing Campaign against Poland’s Judges’ (The Atlantic, 28 January 2020) <https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/01/disturbing-campaign-against-polish-judges/605623/>
Asuelime LE, ‘A Coup or Not a Coup: That is the Question in Zimbabwe’ (2018) 5 (1) Journal of African Foreign Affairs <https://doi.org/10.31920/2056-5658/2018/v5n1a1> DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/2056-5658/2018/v5n1a1
Bar M, ‘Two Tribunals and an Appeal in Seychelles: Monitoring and Enforcement of Legal Ethics in a Small Jurisdiction’ (2020) 3 (1) Small States & Territories.
Christenson R, ‘The Political Theory of Persecution: Augustine and Hobbes’ (1968) 12 Midwest Journal of Political Science <https://doi.org/10.2307/2110137> DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2110137
Corke S and Kerschke K, ‘Poland’s Judges Are Being Harassed into Obedience’ (Transatlantic Take) <https://www.gmfus.org/news/polands-judges-are-being-harassed-obedience> accessed 26 June 2023.
Dube G, ‘Mnangagwa Fires Zimbabwe High Court Judge’ (VOA News, 17 June 2021) <https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/emmerson-mnangagwa-fires-high-court-judge/5933019.html> accessed 31 March 2024.
Duncan AK and Macy J, ‘South Africa Collapse of Judicial Independence in Poland: A Cautionary Tale’ (2021) 104 (3) Judicature.
Fiske J, ‘The Philosophy of Persecution’ (1881) 132 (290) The North American Review.
Giles Samson M, ‘Rethinking Judicial Responsibility: The Case of Judicial Persecution’ (DCL thesis, McGill University 2020) <https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/vq27zs690>
Government of Seychelles, ‘Report of Tribunal of Inquiry in Terms of Article 134 of the Constitution to Inquire into the Inability of Judge Durai Karunakaran to Perform the Functions of the Office of Judge on Grounds of Misbehavior’ (Constitutional Appointment’s Authority, 2017) <https://old.seylii.org/sc/Tribunal%20Final%20%20Report%20%28RE%20Judge%20Karunakaran%29_0.pdf> accessed 27 June 2023.
Graver HP, Judges against Justice: On Judges When the Rule of Law is under Attack. (Springer-Verlag 2015) <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44293-7> DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44293-7
Grothe C, ‘Freedom in the World 2023’ (Freedom House, 2023) <https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/FIW_World_2023_DigtalPDF.pdf> accessed 31 March 2024.
Human Rights Watch, ‘Tunisia: President Intensifies Attacks on Judicial Independence’ (27 February 2023) <https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/27/tunisia-president-intensifies-attacks-judicial-independence>
International Commission of Jurists, ‘Namibia: Attacking Judges for Upholding Human Rights Threatens Judicial Independence and the Rule of Law’ (International Commission of Jurists, 16 June 2023) <https://www.icj.org/namibia-attacking-judges-for-upholding-human-rights-threatens-judicial-independence-and-the-rule-of-law/>
Kabengwa J and Wesaka A, ‘Justice Kisaakye Blames Her Woes on Witch-Hunt’ (Monitor, 5 September 2022) <https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/justice-kisaakye-blames-her-woes-on-witch-hunt-3937136>
Kanyago N, ‘Women’s Representation in the Judiciary Has Come a Long Way but Remains Far from Being Equal’ (Commonwealth News, 31 March 2023) <https://thecommonwealth.org/news/blog-womens-representation-judiciary-has-come-long-way-remains-far-being-equal> accessed 27 June 2023.
Kawadza H, ‘Attacks on the Judiciary: Undercurrents of a Political Versus Legal Constitutionalism Dilemma?’ (2018) PER / PELJ 21 <https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2018/v21i0a1696> DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2018/v21i0a1696
Kiyonga D, ‘JSC on the Spot as It Moves to Investigate Justice Kisakye’ (Monitor, 11 March 2023) <https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/special-reports/jsc-on-the-spot-as-it-moves-to-investigate-justice-kisakye-4154546> accessed 31 March 2024.
Lardies C and others, ‘Gains and Gaps: Perceptions and Experiences of Gender in Africa’ (Afrobarometer, 2019) <https://www.afrobarometer.org/publication/pp61-gains-and-gaps-perceptions-and-experiences-gender-africa/> accessed 31 March 2024.
Legal Resources Foundation and Law Society of Zimbabwe, ‘Zimbabwe Justice Delivery Sector Survey’ (Law Society of Zimbabwe, 2018) <https://lrfzim.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Law-Society-of-Zimbabwe-Justice-Sector-Survey-Report.pdf> accessed 27 June 2023.
Madhuku L, ‘Constitutional Protection of the Independence of the Judiciary: A Survey of the Position in Southern Africa’ (2002) 46 Journal of African Law <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0221855302001918> DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0221855302001918
Mafundikwa I, ‘Job Sikhala, the Man Determined to Wrestle Zimbabwe’s Crocodile’ (BBC News, 1 February 2024) <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68157017> accessed 31 March 2024.
Masengu T, ‘The Vulnerability of Judges in Contemporary Africa: Alarming Trends’ (2017) Africa Today and Indiana University Press 4 (63) <https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.63.4.01> DOI: https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.63.4.01
Mbaku JM, ‘Threats to the Rule of Law in Africa’ (2020) (48) Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law.
Mlambo TN, ‘Between Civil Rights and Property Rights: Debating the Selective Application of Human Rights in Zimbabwe’ (2010) 38 (4) Africa Insight <https://doi.org/10.4314/ai.v38i4.51234> DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/ai.v38i4.51234
Munyoro F, ‘Sikhala Granted Bail’ (Herald, 23 September 2020) <https://www.herald.co.zw/sikhala-granted-bail-3/> accessed 31 March 2024.
Munyoro F, ‘No Pay Day for Fired Judge Ndewere’ (Herald, 27 September 2021) <https://www.herald.co.zw/no-pay-day-for-fired-judge-ndewere/> accessed 27 June 2023.
Netsianda M, ‘Justice Erica Ndewere Fired’ (Chronicle, 18 June 2021) <https://www.chronicle.co.zw/justice-erica-ndewere-fired/> accessed 27 June 2023.
NTVUganda, ‘SUPREME COURT DRAMA: Justice Kisakye Says CJ Tried to Gag Her’ (18 March 2021) <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=INtCai5dxoI> accessed 27 June 2023.
Odinkalu C, ‘Around Africa, Judicial Independence Confronts Viral Authoritarianism’ (Open Society Justice Initiative, 23 September 2020) <https://www.justiceinitiative.org/voices/around-africa-judicial-independence-confronts-viral-authoritarianism> accessed 16 October 2023.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ‘Women’s Political Voice, Leadership and Agency’ (SIGI 2021 Regional Report for Africa, 2021) <https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/d23e2511-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/d23e2511-en> accessed 27 June 2023.
Oloka-Onyango J, ‘President Museveni Can’t Block Justice Kisaakye’s Resignation’ (The Observer, 29 November 2023) <https://observer.ug/viewpoint/79890-president-museveni-can-t-block-justice-kisaakye-s-resignation#google_vignette> accessed 31 March 2024.
Obalade A, ‘The Implications of Attacks on the Judiciary on Political Accountability in South Africa’ (Democracy Development Program, 2022) <https://ddp.org.za/blog/2022/02/10/the-implications-of-attacks-on-the-judiciary-on-political-accountability-in-south-africa/>
Mattes R, ‘Democracy in Africa: Demand, Supply and the Dissatisfied Democrat’ (Afrobarometer, 2019) <https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/migrated/files/publications/Policy%20papers/ab_r7_policypaperno54_africans_views_of_democracy1.pdf>
Perea JF, ‘Of Presidents and Precedent South Africa The Role of Judicial Review in Recent Presidential Elections in Peru, Costa Rica, and the United States’ (2008) 20 (4) Florida Journal of International Law.
Radebe S and Onwuegbuchulam SPC, ‘Interrogating Political Attacks on the Judiciary South Africaica: Towards Safeguarding Judicial Integrity and Independence’ (2021) 50 (4) Africa Insight <https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-afrins_v50_n4_a6>
Repucci S and Slipowitz A, ‘Freedom in the World 2022: The Global Expansion of Authoritarian Rule’ (Freedom House 2022).
Rickard C, ‘A Country Waits: When Will Zimbabwe’s Constitutional Court Give Its Long-Delayed Decision?’ (African Legal Information Institute, 22 February 2019) <https://africanlii.org/articles/2019-02-22/carmel-rickard/a-country-waits-when-will-zimbabwes-constitutional-court-give-its-long-delayed-decision> accessed 28 June 2023.
Rickard C, ‘Supreme Court Judge’s Sensational Claims against Chief Justice’ (African Legal Information Institute, 19 March 2021) <https://africanlii.org/articles/2021-03-19/carmel-rickard/supreme-court-judges-sensational-claims-against-chief-justice> accessed 27 June 2023.
Rickard C, ‘Judges Recall When Their Lives Were Threatened during Contentious Legal Challenge in Malawi’ (African Legal Information Institute, 20 May 2022) <https://africanlii.org/articles/2022-05-20/carmel-rickard/judges-recall-when-their-lives-were-threatened-during-contentious-legal-challenge-in-malawi> accessed 31 March 2024.
Samaita K, ‘Suspended Judge Exposes Rot in Zimbabwe’s Judiciary’ (Business Day, 27 October 2020) <https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/world/africa/2020-10-27-suspended-judge-exposes-rot-in-zimbabwes-judiciary/> accessed 31 March 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/emt.31194
Seiderman I and others, ‘Justice Locked Out: Swaziland’s Rule of Law Crisis’ (International Commission of Jurists, 2016) https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Swaziland-Justice-locked-out-RoL-crisis-Publications-Fact-Finding-Mission-Report-2016-ENG.pdf accessed 11 April 2024.
Shen-Bayh FF, Undue Process: Persecution and Punishment in Autocratic Courts (CUP 2022) <https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009197151> DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009197151
Staff Reporter, ‘Judge Charged with Insulting Swazi King’s Forked Tongue’ (Mail & Guardian, 30 June 2011) <https://mg.co.za/article/2011-06-30-swazi-judge-faces-suspension-for-insulting-kings-forked-tongue/>
Staff Reporter, ‘Seychelles President James Michel Re-elected, Opposition Cries Foul’ (The Economic Times News, 19 December 2015) <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/seychelles-president-james-michel-re-elected-opposition-cries-foul/articleshow/50244816.cms?from=mdr> accessed 27 June 2023.
Staff Reporter, ‘CJ Malaba Lied to Mnangagwa: Ndewere’ (News Day, 27 March 2021) <https://www.newsday.co.zw/2021/03/cj-malaba-lied-to-mnangagwa-ndewere> accessed 27 June 2023.
Staff Reporter, ‘Justice Kisakye Gives Dissenting Judgement in Kyagulanyi’s Case’ (The Independent, 19 March 2021) <https://www.independent.co.ug/justice-kisakye-gives-dissenting-judgement-in-kyagulanyis-case/> accessed 27 June 2023.
United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers’ (A/HRC/41/48 29 April 2019) <https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc4148-independence-judges-and-lawyers-report-special-rapporteur>
United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Sixth Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers, Diego García-Sayán’ (A/77/160 13 July 2022) <https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N22/424/42/PDF/N2242442.pdf?OpenElement> accessed 26 June 2023.
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, ‘Uganda: UN Expert Concerned about Proceedings against Supreme Court Justice Kisaakye’ (United Nations, 31 March 2023) <https://www.ohchr.org/en/news/2023/03/uganda-un-expert-concerned-about-proceedings-against-supreme-court-justice-kisaakye> accessed 27 June 2023.
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, ‘Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers’ <https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-independence-of-judges-and-lawyers> accessed 31 March 2024.
United Nations Special Rapporteur, ‘Independence of Judges and Lawyers’ Communication to the Government of Swaziland’ (UA G/SO 214 (67-17) G/SO 214 (3-3-16) of 11 August 2011).
Uranie S, ‘Seychelles’ Court Rejects Presidential Election Petitions, Validates President Michel’s Win’ (Seychelles News Agency, 31 March 2016) <http://www.seychellesnewsagency.com/articles/5279/Seychelles%27+court+rejects+presidential+election+petitions%2C+validates+President+Michels+win> accessed 27 June 2023.
Wesaka A and Kigongo J, ‘Judge Sues CJ, Five Others over Bobi 2021 Poll Case Spat’ (Monitor, 5 October 2022) <https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/judge-sues-cj-five-others-over-bobi-2021-poll-case-spat-3973850> accessed 27 June 2023.
Zimbabwe Peace Project, ‘Politics Ruling the Law in Zimbabwe’ (OCHA, 2022) <https://reliefweb.int/organization/zpp> accessed 26 June 2023.
Cases
Attorney-General v Ray Gwebu and Another 2002 Case No 3699/02 2002 98 (SZHC).
Commissioner of Police and Attorney-General v Mkhondvo Aaron Maseko 2011 Civil Appeal No 03/2011 15 (SZSC).
Justice Thomas S Masuku v The Kingdom of Swaziland 2021 (Communication 444 of 2013) 518 (ACHPR).
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights v Peru (Inter-American Court of Human Rights) 2001 Case No 55/1999.
Jan Sithole and Others v Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland 2009 Appeal Case No 50/08 (SZSC).
Justice Esther Kitimbo Kisaakye v Hon Chief Justice Chigamoy Owiny-Dollo and Others Constitutional Petition No 30 of 2022.
Madeli Fakudze v Commissioner of Police and Others 2009 Civil Case No 1935/2002 (HCSZ).
Priscah Mupfumira v State 2019 HH 556-19 <https://www.jsc.org.zw/upload/Judgements/High%20Court/Harare/2019/HH%20556-19.pdf> accessed 31 March 2024.
S v Job Sikhala 2020 (4) ZWMSVHC HMA 04-20 CRB 04-20.
S v Kenneth Majecha CRB MDP 79/19.
Wavel John Charles Ramkalawan v Electoral Commissioner and Others 2016 Constitutional Court Decision CP 7/2015 & CP 1/2016.
Wavel John Charles Ramkalawan v Electoral Commissioner and Others 2016 Constitutional Appeal SCA CP 1/2016 (C).
Legislation
Constitution of Eswatini of 2005.
Constitution of The Seychelles of 1993.
Constitution of Uganda of 1995.
Constitution of Zimbabwe of 2013.
High Court Act of Zimbabwe [Chapter 7:06].
Judicial Service Act of Uganda.
Magistrate’s Court Act [Chapter 7:10].
Schedule of the Constitutional Appointments Authority (Complaints and Removal) Rules, 2020.
International Treaties and Conventions
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 1981.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966.
United Nations Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, endorsed by General Assembly resolutions 40/32 of 29 November 1985.
Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Fair Trial and Legal Assistance in Africa, African Commission on Human & Peoples’ Rights, adopted March 1992.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Accepted 2024-04-12
Published 2024-07-18