The Effects of Internal and External Risk Factors in Forensic Social Workers’ Experience of Secondary Traumatic Stress
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25159/2708-9355/13317Keywords:
expert witness, forensic social worker, secondary traumatic stress, trauma narrativesAbstract
Forensic social workers are vulnerable to secondary traumatic stress due to their direct exposure to trauma narratives from sexually abused children. They face the unique challenge of distinguishing between their roles as expert witnesses and therapists. However, research on the risk factors for secondary traumatic stress in forensic social workers is frequently disregarded both internationally and in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to look at the effect of internal and external risk factors on secondary traumatic stress symptoms among forensic social workers. An all-inclusive voluntary sample method was used to include all trained forensic social workers with a master’s degree in forensic practice who graduated from a recognised South African university between 2006 and 2019. The study used a quantitative cross-sectional descriptive design and data was collected using Google Forms, which was distributed via email. IBM SPSS version 27 was used to analyse the data. Internal factors such as race and relationship status as well as external factors such as clinical supervision, social support, and exposure to traumatic experiences were found to have varied effects on secondary traumatic stress symptoms in the study.
Metrics
References
Alanazi, T. N. M., L. McKenna, M. Buck, and R. J. Alharbi. 2022. “Reported Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Psychological Status of Emergency Healthcare Workers: A Scoping Review.” Australasian Emergency Care 25 (3): 197–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.auec.2021.10.002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.auec.2021.10.002
APA (American Psychiatric Association). 2022. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787
Ashford, J. 2015. “The Changing Face of Forensic Social Work: An Overview.” In Social Workers’ Desk Reference, edited by K. Corcoran and R. Roberts, 1055–1060. Oxford: University Press.
Beckmann, S. A. 2015. “Secondary Traumatic Stress and Posttraumatic Growth: Risk and Protective Factors among American Red Cross Disaster Responders and Disaster Mental Health Workers.” PhD thesis, University of Minnesota.
Berthold, T. 2016. Foundations for Community Health Workers. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bride, B. E., M. M. Robinson, B. Yegidis, and C. R. Figley. 2004. “Development and Validation of the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale.” Research on Social Work Practice 14 (1): 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731503254106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731503254106
Bride, B. E. 2007. “Prevalence of Secondary Traumatic Stress among Social Workers.” Social Work 52 (1): 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.1.63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.1.63
Calitz, T. M. 2013. “An Empowerment Programme to Regain Positive Work Engagement for Social Workers in the North-West Province.” PhD thesis, North-West University.
Campbell, S. B., and K. D. Renshaw. 2018. “Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Relationship Functioning: A Comprehensive Review and Organisational Framework.” Clinical Psychology Review 65: 152–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.08.003
Chiarelli-Helminiak, C. M. 2014. “Job Satisfaction and Burnout among Forensic Interviewers.” PhD thesis, University of Connecticut.
Childs, G. 2013. Understand your Temperament! A Guide to the Four Temperaments: Choleric Sanguine Phlegmatic Melancholic. Forest Row: Rudolf Steiner Press.
Coll, S. Y., F. Eustache, F. Doidy, F. Fraisse, D. Peschanski, J. Dayan, P. Gagnepain, and M. Laisneya, 2022. “Avoidance Behaviour Generalizes to Eye Processing in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” Accessed February 25, 2023. https://doi.org10.1080/20008198.2022.2044661. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2044661
Cumming, G., and R. Calin-Jageman. 2017. Introduction to the New Statistics: Estimation, Open Science, and Beyond. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315708607. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315708607
Davies, J. M., S. Edgar, and J. Debenham. 2016. “A Qualitative Exploration of the Factors Influencing the Job Satisfaction and Career Development of Physiotherapists in Private Practice.” Manual Therapy 25: 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2016.06.001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2016.06.001
De Kock, E. 2018. “Do You Have a Legal Practitioner Personality?” Accessed June 12, 2023. https://www.derebus.org.za/legal-practitioner-personality/.
Dutton, M. A., and F. L. Rubinstein. 1995. “Working with People with PTSD: Research Implications.” In Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatised, edited by C. R. Figley, 82–100. New York: Taylor and Francis. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1995-97891-004.
Ellis, S. M., and H. S. Steyn. 2003. “Practical Significance (Effect Sizes) Versus or in Combination with Statistical Significance (P-values): Research Note. Management Dynamics.” Journal of the Southern African Institute for Management Scientists (12) 4: 51–53. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC69666.
Etikan, I., S. L. Musa, and R. S. Alkassim. 2016. “Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive Sampling.” American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics 5 (1): 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
Field, A. 2013. Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics: And Sex and Drugs and Rock “N” Roll. 4th ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Figley, C. 1995. Compassion Fatigue: Coping with STS Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized. New York: Tayler & Francis.
Foster, K., P. Marks, A. J. O’Brien, and T. Raeburn. 2020. Mental Health in Nursing. Theory and Practice for Clinical Settings. 5th ed. Chatswood: Elsevier.
Fouché, C. B., H. Strydom, and W. J. H. Roestenburg. 2021. Research at Grassroots for the Social Sciences and Human Services Professions. 5th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Goodman, C. C., and K. S. Fuller. 2021. Pathology. Implications for the Physical Therapist. 5th ed. Missouri: Elsevier.
Greinacher, A., C. Derezza-Greeven, Q. Herzog, and C. Nikendei. 2019. “Secondary Traumatisation in First Responders: A Systematic Review.” European Journal of Psycho-traumatology 10 (1): 1–21. https://doi.org:10.1080/20008198.2018.1562840. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1562840
Ike, K. G. O., S. F. de Boer, B. Buwalda, and M. J. H. Kas. 2020. “Social Withdrawal: An Initially Adaptive Behaviour That Becomes Maladaptive When Expressed Excessively.” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 116: 251–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.030. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.030
Jonker, B. E., L. I. Graupner, and L. Rossouw. 2020. “An Intervention Framework to Facilitate Psychological Trauma Management in High-Risk Occupations.” Accessed March 24, 2021. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00530/full. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00530
Joseph, H., and D. Murphy. 2013. “Trauma: A Unifying Concept for Social Work.” British Journal of Social Work 44: 1094–109. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bes207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcs207
Kheswa, J. G. 2019. “Factors and Effects of Work-related Stress and Burnout on the Well-being of Social Workers in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.” SA Journal of Industrial Psychology 45 (1): 1–10. https://sajip.co.za/index.php/sajip/article/view/1661. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v45i0.1661
Kianpoor, M., P. Rahmanian, A. Mojahed, and R. Amouchie. 2017. “Secondary Traumatic Stress, Dissociative and Somatisation Symptoms in Spouses of Veterans with PTSD in Zahedan, Iran.” Electron Physician 9 (4): 4202–206. https://doi.org/10.19082/4202. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19082/4202
Kimes, A. T. 2016. “Burnout Rates among Social Workers: A Systematic Review and Synthesis.” MSW diss., California State University, San Bernardino. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/398/.
King, C. R., S. O. Gerard, and C. G. Rapp, eds. 2020. Clinical Nurse Leader Certification Review. 3rd ed. New York: Springer. https://www.springerpub.com/clinical-nurse-leader-certification-review-third-edition-9780826164568.html.
Kulkarni, S., H. Bell, J. L. Hartman, R. L. Herman-Smith. 2013. “Exploring Individual and Organisational Factors Contributing to Compassion Satisfaction, Secondary Traumatic Stress, and Burnout in Domestic Violence Service Providers.” Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research 4 (2): 114–30. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2013.8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2013.8
Levin, A. P., H. Putney, D. Crimmins, and J. G. McGrath. 2021. “Secondary Traumatic Stress, Burnout, Compassion Satisfaction, and Perceived Organisational Trauma Readiness in Forensic Science Professionals.” Journal of Forensic Science 66 (5): 1758–69. https://doi.org:10.1111/1556-4029.14747. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14747
Masson, F., and J. Moodley. 2020. “Secondary Traumatic Stress: The Experiences of Social Workers in the South African Police Service.” Social Work in Action 32 (3): 169–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/09503153.2019.1615043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09503153.2019.1615043
McKenna, L., and R. Gray. 2018. “The Importance of Ethics in Research Publications.” Collegian 25 (2): 147–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2018.02.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2018.02.006
Ortega, C. M. 2021. “Preventing Secondary Traumatic Stress in Social Workers: How to Protect Helping Professionals.” Senior honors thesis, Eastern Michigan University. https://commons.emich.edu/honors/7057.
Padmanabhanunni, A. 2020 “The Cost of Caring: Secondary Traumatic Stress and Burnout among Lay Trauma Counsellors in the Western Cape Province.” South African Journal of Psychology 50 (3): 385–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246319892898. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246319892898
Pilcher, J. J., and S. A. Bryant. 2016. “Implications of Social Support as a Self-Control Resource.” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00228/full DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00228
Pohl, S., and M. Galletta. 2017. “The Role of Supervisor Emotional Support on Individual Job Satisfaction: A Multilevel Analysis.” Applied Nursing Research 33: 61–66. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.apnr.2016.10.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2016.10.004
Pyrczak, D. M., and D. M. Oh. 2018. Making Sense of Statistics. A Conceptual Overview. 7th ed. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315179803. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315179803
Quinn, A., P. Ji, and L. Nackerud. 2019. “Predictors of Secondary Traumatic Stress among Social Workers: Supervision, Income, and Caseload.” Journal of Social Work 19 (4): 504–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017318762450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017318762450
Rapholo, S. F. 2018. “Effectiveness of Interviewing Techniques with the Black Child during Forensic Social Work Assessments: A South African Perspective.” PhD thesis, University of Limpopo. http://ulspace.ul.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10386/2059/rapholo_sf_2018.pdf?sequence=1.
Rauvola, R. S., D. M. Vega, and K. N. Lavigne. 2019. “Compassion Fatigue, Secondary Traumatic Stress, and Vicarious Traumatisation: A Qualitative Review and Research Agenda.” Occupational Health Science 3: 297–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-019-00045-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-019-00045-1
Rothwell, C., A. Kehoe, S. Farook, and J. Illing. 2019. “The Characteristics of Effective Clinical and Peer Supervision in the Workplace: A Rapid Evidence Review.” Accessed February 27, 2021. https://www.hcpc-uk.org/globalassets/resources/reports/research/effective-clinical-and-peer-supervision-report.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052929. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052929
Rubin, A., and E. Babbie. 2016. Essential Research Methods for Social Work. 4th ed. Boston: Cengage Learning. https://www.cengage.uk/c/empowerment-series-essential-research-methods-for-social-work-4e-rubin-babbie/9781305101685/.
Shoji, K., M. Lesnierowska, E. Smoktunoqicz, J. Bock, A. Luszczynska, C. C. Benight, and R. Cieslak. 2015. “What Comes First, Job Burnout or Secondary Traumatic Stress? Findings from Two Longitudinal Studies from the U.S. and Poland.” PLoS ONE 10 (8): e0136730. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136730. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136730
South African Council for Social Service Professions. 2017. Regulations Relating to the Registration of a Specialisation in Forensic Social Work. Pretoria: Government Gazette. https://www.sacssp.co.za/legislation-2/.
Sprang, G., J. Ford, P. Kerig, and B. Bride. 2019. “Defining Secondary Traumatic Stress and Developing Targeted Assessments and Interventions: Lessons Learned from Research and Leading Experts.” Traumatology 25 (2), 72–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000180. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000180
Starcher, D., and S. N. Stolzenberg. 2020. “Burnout and Secondary Trauma among Forensic Interviewers.” Child Family Social Work 25 (4): 924–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12777. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12777
Steele, W. 2019. Reducing Compassion Fatigue, Secondary Traumatic Stress, and Burnout. A Trauma-Sensitive Workbook. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429056734. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429056734
SPSS Inc. 2021. “IBM SPSS Statistics Version 26, Copyright© IBM Corporation and its Licensors.” Accessed December 5, 2021. https://www-01.ibm.com/software/analytics/spss/.
Weiss-Dagan, S., A. Ben-Porat, and H. Itzhaky. 2020. “Secondary Traumatic Stress and Vicarious Post-traumatic Growth among Social Workers Who Have Worked with Abused Children.” Journal of Social Work 22 (1): 170–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320981363. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320981363
Wilson, F. 2016. “Identifying, Preventing, and Addressing Job Burnout and Vicarious Burnout for Social Work Professionals.” Journal of Evidence Informed Social Work 13 (5): 479–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2016.1166856. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2016.1166856
Wright, K. B., and S. A. Rains. 2013. “Weak-Tie Support Network Preference, Health-Related Stigma, and Health Outcomes in Computer-Mediated Support Groups.” Journal of Applied Communication Research 41 (3): 309–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2013.792435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2013.792435
Wright, K. 2016. “Social Networks, Interpersonal Social Support, and Health Outcomes: A Health Communication Perspective.” Frontiers in Communication 1: 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcomm.2016.00010/full. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2016.00010
Wu, M., K. Zhao, F. Fils-Aime. 2022. “Response Rates of Online Surveys in Published Research: A Meta-analysis.” Computers in Human Behavior Reports 7: 100206. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2451958822000409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100206
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Accepted 2023-07-04
Published 2023-09-08