Gender Barriers and Career Advancement Challenges : A Qualitative Study of Female Postdoctoral Researchers in China’s Higher Education

Lulu Wang; Hu  Xinzhu; Zhang Jing; Ye  Hedi; Ruyang Li

doi:10.25159/1947-9417/18475

Authors

Lulu Wang Wenzhou University
Hu Xinzhu Wenzhou Polytechnic
Zhang Jing Universiti Sains Malaysia
Ye Hedi Wenzhou Medical University
Ruyang Li Zhejiang College of Security Technology https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2991-294X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/18475

Keywords:

gender inequality, higher education, female postdoctoral researchers, glass ceiling theory

Abstract

Female postdoctoral researchers in China’s higher education system face persistent gender-based barriers that hinder their career advancement. This study investigates these challenges through the lens of the glass ceiling theory. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 25 female postdoctoral researchers, aged 28 to 40, from diverse disciplines and institutions across China. The thematic analysis revealed that gender discrimination, limited access to leadership roles, and insufficient institutional support impede career progression. Cultural expectations often pressure women to juggle career goals and family duties, which makes it harder for them to advance in their academic careers. This study concludes that persistent barriers call for urgent policy reforms, including clear promotion standards and better support for work-life balance, to promote gender equality in academia. Addressing these issues can empower female researchers and enhance innovation within the higher education system.

Author Biography

Ye Hedi, Wenzhou Medical University

Department of Graduate Studies

References

Ahlers, A. L., and S. Christmann-Budian. 2023. “The Politics of University Rankings in China”. Higher Education 86 (4): 751–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01014-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01014-y

Balta, N., N. Japashov, A. Mansurova, K. Tzafilkou, A. W. Oliveira, and R. Lathrop. 2023. “Middle‐ and Secondary‐School Students’ STEM Career Interest and Its Relationship to Gender, Grades, and Family Size in Kazakhstan”. Science Education 107 (2): 401–426. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21776. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21776

Bam, A., C. Walters, and J. Jansen. 2024. “Care and Academic Work in a Pandemic Lockdown: A Study of Women Academics in South Africa”. Higher Education 87 (6): 1790–1807. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01091-z. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01091-z

Bass, B. M., and B. J. Avolio. 1994. “Shatter the Glass Ceiling: Women May Make Better Managers”. Human Resource Management 33 (4): 549–560. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.3930330405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.3930330405

Braun, V., and V. Clarke. 2006. “Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology”. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3 (2): 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Bu, Q., L. Zhang, and M. Hang. 2023. “Beyond ‘Male versus Female’: Understanding the Dilemma of Chinese Female STEM Undergraduate Students through Intersectionality”. Education as Change 27 (1): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/13852. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/13852

Campbell, A. C., and E. Neff. 2020. “A Systematic Review of International Higher Education Scholarships for Students from the Global South”. Review of Educational Research 90 (6): 824–861. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320947783. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320947783

Chan, R. C. H. 2022. “A Social Cognitive Perspective on Gender Disparities in Self-Efficacy, Interest, and Aspirations in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM): The Influence of Cultural and Gender Norms”. International Journal of STEM Education 9 (1): 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00352-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00352-0

Dong, Y., J. Wang, Y. Yang, and P. M. Kurup. 2020. “Understanding Intrinsic Challenges to STEM Instructional Practices for Chinese Teachers Based on Their Beliefs and Knowledge Base”. International Journal of STEM Education 7 (1): 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00245-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00245-0

Habicht, I. M. 2023. “Do Mothers Get Lost at the Postdoc Stage? Event History Analysis of Psychologists at German Universities (1980–2019)”. Higher Education 86 (4): 913–932. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00949-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00949-y

Heidegger, M. 2005. Introduction to Phenomenological Research. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Heinz, M., K. Davison, and E. Keane. 2018. “‘I Will Do It But Religion Is a Very Personal Thing’: Teacher Education Applicants’ Attitudes towards Teaching Religion in Ireland”. European Journal of Teacher Education 41 (2): 232–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2018.1426566. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2018.1426566

Henderson, E. F., and P. J. Reynolds. 2023. “Mobile, Hierarchical, Normative, Decadent and Conflict Prone: Understanding Academia through Fictional Conferences”. Higher Education 85 (6): 1201–1218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00885-x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00885-x

Izzuddin, R., P. Dalimunthe, and S. H. Susilo. 2021. “The Portrayal of Women in Arabic Textbooks for Non-Arabic Speakers”. Sage Open 11 (2): 21582440211014184. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211014184. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211014184

Jackson, J. F. L., and E. M. O’Callaghan. 2009. “What Do We Know about Glass Ceiling Effects? A Taxonomy and Critical Review to Inform Higher Education Research”. Research in Higher Education 50 (5): 460–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-009-9128-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-009-9128-9

Kim, E. G., S. Park, and M. Baldwin. 2021. “Toward Successful Implementation of Introductory Integrated Content and Language Classes for EFL Science and Engineering Students”. TESOL Quarterly 55 (1): 219–245. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.594. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.594

Lai, L. S. L., W. M. To, J. Lung, and T. M. Lai. 2012. “The Perceived Value of Higher Education: The Voice of Chinese Students”. Higher Education 63 (3): 271–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-011-9439-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-011-9439-6

Liu, S., and W. Ding. 2022. “Chinese Universities’ Special Programs Supporting Talents to Seek a United Nations Career: A Center-Periphery-Model Analysis”. Higher Education 86 (2): 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00938-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00938-1

Luo, L., H. Stoeger, and R. F. Subotnik. 2022. “The Influences of Social Agents in Completing a STEM Degree: An Examination of Female Graduates of Selective Science High Schools”. International Journal of STEM Education 9 (1): 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00324-w. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00324-w

Mankki, V., M. Mäkinen, and P. Räihä. 2020. “Teacher Educators’ Predictability and Student Selection Paradigms in Entrance Examinations for the Finnish Primary School Teacher Education Programme”. European Journal of Teacher Education 43 (2): 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2019.1672653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2019.1672653

Marginson, S. 2021. “‘All Things Are in Flux’: China in Global Science”. Higher Education 83 (4): 881–910. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00712-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00712-9

Martin, M. M., F. Goldberg, M. McKean, E. Price, and C. Turpen. 2022. “Understanding How Facilitators Adapt to Needs of STEM Faculty in Online Learning Communities: A Case Study”. International Journal of STEM Education 9 (1): 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00371-x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00371-x

Moshtari, M., and A. Safarpour. 2023. “Challenges and Strategies for the Internationalization of Higher Education in Low-Income East African Countries”. Higher Education 87 (1): 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-00994-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-00994-1

Muthama, E., and S. McKenna. 2020. “The Unintended Consequences of Using Direct Incentives to Drive the Complex Task of Research Dissemination”. Education as Change 24 (1): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/6688. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/6688

Patall, E. A., R. R. Steingut, J. L. Freeman, K. A. Pituch, and A. C. Vasquez. 2018. “Gender Disparities in Students’ Motivational Experiences in High School Science Classrooms”. Science Education 102 (5): 951–977. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21461. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21461

Pathak, V., B. Jena, and S. Kalra. 2013. “Qualitative Research”. Perspectives in Clinical Research 4 (3): 192. https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-3485.115389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-3485.115389

Perez-Felkner, L., K. Erichsen, Y. Li, J. Chen, S. Hu, L. Ramirez Surmeier, and C. Shore. 2024. “Computing Education Interventions to Increase Gender Equity from 2000 to 2020: A Systematic Literature Review”. Review of Educational Research 95 (3): 536–580. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543241241536. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543241241536

Pillay, S., and S. Abhayawansa. 2014. “Work–Family Balance: Perspectives from Higher Education”. Higher Education 68 (5): 669–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9738-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9738-9

Queirós, A., T. Carvalho, M. Manatos, and S. Diogo. 2024. “Internationalization of Portuguese Academia: The Impact on Academic Engagement and Collaboration with Society”. Higher Education 87 (6): 1769–1789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01090-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01090-0

Reymert, I., A. Vabø, S. B. Borlaug, and J. Jungblut. 2022. “Barriers to Attracting the Best Researchers: Perceptions of Academics in Economics and Physics in Three European Countries”. Higher Education 86 (5): 1173–1193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00967-w. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00967-w

Robinson, M., and N. Rousseau. 2012. “Re-imagining Teacher Education: Connecting the Spaces between Vision, Context and Curriculum”. Education as Change 16 (1): 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2012.692178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2012.692178

Rosewell, K. 2022. “Academics’ Perceptions of What It Means to Be Both a Parent and an Academic: Perspectives from an English University”. Higher Education 83 (4): 711–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00697-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00697-5

Sato, S., P. M. Gygax, J. F. Randall, and M. S. Mast. 2021. “The Leaky Pipeline in Research Grant Peer Review and Funding Decisions: Challenges and Future Directions”. Higher Education 82 (1): 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00626-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00626-y

Settlage, J., and S. A. Southerland. 2019. “Epistemic Tools for Science Classrooms: The Continual Need to Accommodate and Adapt”. Science Education 103 (4): 1112–1119. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21510

Xu, X. 2020. “China ‘Goes Out’ in a Centre–Periphery World: Incentivizing International Publications in the Humanities and Social Sciences”. Higher Education 80 (1): 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00470-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00470-9

Yadav, A., and C. Seals. 2019. “Taking the Next Step: Supporting Postdocs to Develop an Independent Path in Academia”. International Journal of STEM Education 6 (1): 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-019-0168-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-019-0168-1

Yang, D., and M. Zhou. 2023. “A Social Semiotic Analysis of Gender Representations in Biology Textbooks for Upper Secondary Schools in China”. Education as Change 27 (1): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/12791. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/12791

Zhao, J., G. H. Beckett, and L. L. Wang. 2017. “Evaluating the Research Quality of Education Journals in China: Implications for Increasing Global Impact in Peripheral Countries”. Review of Educational Research 87 (3): 583–618. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317690813. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317690813

Zhe, C., X. Lu, and X. Xiong. 2021. “Analysis of Influence Factors on the Quality of International Collaboration Research in the Field of Social Sciences and Humanities: The Case of Chinese World Class Universities (2015–2019)”. Sage Open 11 (4): 21582440211050381. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211050381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211050381

Zhou, Y., H. Li, and F. Shahzad. 2021. “Does College Education Promote Entrepreneurship Education in China?” Sage Open 11 (3): 21582440211031616. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211031616. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211031616